Students Again

a. What is the meaning of "confidentiality," "integrity," and "availability" as they relate to an information system. Why are these three factors so important?

- In relation to an information system, “confidentiality, integrity, and availability mean:

1) Confidentiality –Confidentiality refers to the effort of protecting this sensitive information from being obtained by an unintended party.

2) Integrity –Integrity is the adherence to moral and ethical principles that a security professional must maintain in their responsibility of securing the information system.

3) Availability – Availability is the process by which a system is in place for data to be available to only the intended audience. For example, if a corporation has a B2B system in place with a shipping company to track shipments then that shipping information in only available to the corporation for which it was intended.

Due to the increased interconnection of businesses and people a large amount of sensitive information is stored and transmitted on a regular basis. Considering all of the sensitive data that is now everywhere, the idea of maintaining confidentiality, integrity, and availability is more important than ever. These three information security objectives are what allow an information system to remain useful to the audience for which it was created without it becoming a system to be used by the malevolent.

b. A goal of network security managers is to "associate [security] risks with problems related to technology and human beings." What does this statement mean? Supplamental material can be found on the WEB, for example the "DNS on the Internet subtopic in the presentation at http://www.learntcpip.com/DNS/default.htm.

- The meaning of this goal for security managers points out the difficulty of the task at hand. This goal is an attempt to foresee and preemptively prevent compromising the security of an information system that can consist of a vast and complicated structure. The limitations, complexity, etc. of technology are a short list of things a security manager must consider in securing a system. For example, does a system use services that are particularly vulnerable to attack. If so, what can be done to continue running the service vital to the systems operation without it remaining so vulnerable. In addition to the technology side of the equation the human side remains. A security professional must also consider what shortfalls the users of the system may possess. Are the users themselves vulnerable to different types of attacks. For example, can a user be convinced to provide sensitive system information through deception or do users have a habit of using weak password to protect data they have the ability to access. For the security manager, both the technical and human aspects of the information system must be considered in an effort to associate potential risk to the security of that system.

a. Get into the mindset of a truly determined hacker. Why would someone devote tremendous time and energy to trying to break into an information system? What could the reward be? Discuss this as a group.

- The motivation, or reward for the successes of a truly determined hacker varies. I suppose the answer really depends on the individual hacker. Here are some of the reasons and rewards I think some hackers may have and receive:

- Curiosity / Desire for knowledge – A hacker may hack for the sheer purpose of learning something new or may be curious about something that is not supposed to be available to the public. Of course, the reward for this type of hacker is knowledge.

- Malicious Intent – A hacker may hack with the intent to do harm.

This may come in the form of disrupting the operation of a business or material gain through deceitful measures. The reward can be material (such as money) or a sense of power.

- Self- Satisfaction – A hacker may hack for self-satisfaction. The reward is knowing that they have the ability to do whatever they set out to accomplish.

- Bonding – A hacker may hack for camaraderie. Maybe the hacker is surrounded by peers that also hack. The reward would be acceptance.

- Dissatisfaction – A hacker may hack because they are dissatisfied with the world and the way it works. The reward would be the success in changing something that dissatisfied them.

- Exposure – A hacker may hack to expose vulnerabilities in an effort to show security personnel they need to work a bit harder. The reward would be the fixing of that security vulnerability they exposed.

- Competition – A hacker may hack in competition with other hackers. The reward would be proof of superiority in the hacking culture.

- Creativity – A hacker may hack to satisfy their creativity. The reward would be having an idea nobody else previously thought of or acted on.

- Fun – A hacker may hack just for the fun of it because they can!

b. The CIA triad treats confidentiality, integrity, and availability as equally important. Do you agree, or do you feel that one of these goals is more important than the others? Discuss this as a group and be prepared to support your views.

- I do believe that all three of these goals are extremely important.

However, I believe that integrity is a bit more important. The reason I believe the goal of integrity is a little more important than the other two goals is because without preserving the integrity of what you are protecting (e.g. data) what is the point of keeping it confidential or available.

a. What are the certification tests required for Cisco Firewall Specialist, what areas of knowledge are covered by those tests, and are those tests required by any other Cisco Certifications.

- The requirements for a Cisco Firewall Specialists are a valid CCNA certification, exam 642-552 SND (Securing Cisco Network Devices), and 642-523 SNPA (Securing Networks with PIX and ASA. This specialists certification must be recertified every two years by passing the current version of the exam or passing the CCIE exam. The exam topics for exam 642-552 SND include:

• Describe the security threats facing modern network infrastructures
• Describe and mitigate the common threats to the physical installation
• Describe and list mitigation methods for common network attacks
• Describe and list mitigation methods for Worm, Virus, and Trojan Horse attacks
• Describe the main activities in each phase of a secure network lifecycle
• Explain how to meet the security needs of a typical enterprise with a comprehensive security policy
• Describe the Cisco Self Defending Network architecture Secure Cisco routers
• Secure Cisco routers using the SDM Security Audit feature
• Use the One-Step Lockdown feature in SDM to secure a Cisco router
• Secure administrative access to Cisco routers by setting strong encrypted passwords, exec timeout, login failure rate and using IOS login enhancements
• Secure administrative access to Cisco routers by configuring multiple privilege levels
• Secure administrative access to Cisco routers by configuring role based CLI
• Secure the Cisco IOS image and configuration file Implement basic AAA using Cisco routers
• Explain the functions and importance of AAA
• Describe the features of TACACS+ and RADIUS AAA protocols
• Describe the methods of authentication that are used to provide access through a router (packet mode) and to provide access to the router (character mode) Mitigate threats to Cisco routers and networks using ACLs
• Explain the functionality of standard, extended, and named IP ACLs used by routers to filter packets
• Configure and verify IP ACLs to mitigate given threats (filter IP traffic destined for Telnet, SNMP, and DDoS attacks) in a network using CLI
• Configure IP ACLs to prevent IP address spoofing using CLI
• Discuss the caveats to be considered when building ACLs Implement secure network management and reporting
• Describe the factors to be considered when planning for secure management and reporting of network devices
• Use CLI to configure SSH on Cisco routers to enable secured management access
• Use CLI to configure Cisco routers to send Syslog messages to a Syslog server
• Describe SNMPv3 and NTPv3 Mitigate common Layer 2 attacks
• Describe the common Layer 2 attacks and how to mitigate them (VLAN hopping, STP attacks, ARP spoofing, MAC spoofing, CAM overflow)
• Describe the function and benefit of the security features in Cisco Catalyst switches (IBNS, PVLAN, SPAN port)
• Describe common threats to WLANs
• Describe the security features of the 802.11 protocol Implement the Cisco IOS firewall feature set using SDM
• Describe the operational strengths and weaknesses of the different firewall technologies
• Explain stateful firewall operations and the function of the state table
• Explain the types of NAT that can be implemented in a firewall
• Configure and verify basic and advanced firewall on a Cisco router using SDM
• Implement the Cisco IOS IPS feature set using SDM
• Define network based vs. host based intrusion detection and prevention
• Explain IPS technologies, attack responses, and monitoring options
• Enable and verify Cisco IOS IPS operations using SDM Implement IPsec VPN on Cisco routers using SDM
• Explain IKE protocol functionality and phases
• Describe the building blocks of IPsec and the security functions it provides
• Explain hash-based message authentication code (HMAC) operations
• Explain the different methods of encryption
• Explain the purpose of the Diffie-Hellman key agreement protocol
• Describe how IPsec establishes origin authentication
• Describe the PKI environment at a high level
• Describe the different types of IPsec VPN implementations
• Configure and verify an IPsec site-to-site VPN with pre-shared key authentication using SDM
• Explain Cisco Easy VPN Server and Cisco Easy VPN Remote
• Configure and verify remote access VPNs using the Cisco Easy VPN Server feature of Cisco SDM
• The exam topics for 642-523 SNPA include:
• Install and configure a Security Appliance for basic network connectivity
• Describe the Security Appliance hardware and software architecture
• Determine the Security Appliance hardware and software configuration and verify if it is correct
• Use setup or the CLI to configure basic network settings, including interface configurations
• Use appropriate show commands to verify initial configurations
• Configure NAT and global addressing to meet user requirements
• Configure DHCP client option
• Set default route
• Configure logging options
• Describe the firewall technology
• Explain the information contained in syslog files
• Configure static address translations
• Configure Network Address Translations: PAT
• Verify network address translation operation
• Configure a Security Appliance to restrict inbound traffic from untrusted sources
• Configure access-lists to filter traffic based on address, time, and protocols
• Configure object-groups to optimize access-list processing
• Configure Network Address Translations: Nat0
• Configure Network Address Translations: Policy NAT
• Configure java/activeX filtering
• Configure URL filtering
• Verify inbound traffic restrictions
• Configure static port redirection
• Configure a net static
• Set embryonic and connection limits on the Security Appliance
• Configure a Security Appliance to provide secure connectivity using site-to-site VPNs
• Explain the basic functionality of IPsec
• Configure IKE with preshared keys
• Differentiate between the types of encryption
• Configure IPsec parameters
• Configure crypto-maps and ACLs
• Configure a Security Appliance to provide secure connectivity using remote access VPNs
• Explain the functions of EasyVPN
• Configure IPsec using EasyVPN Server/Client
• Configure the Cisco Secure VPN client
• Explain the purpose of SSL VPN
• Configure WebVPN services: Server/Client
• Verify VPN operations
• Install and Configure SVCs
• Install and Configure Cisco Secure Desktop
• Configure transparent firewall, virtual firewall, and high availability firewall features on a Security Appliance
• Explain differences between L2 and L3 operating modes
• Configure Security Appliance for transparent mode (L2)
• Explain purpose of virtual firewalls
• Configure Security Appliance to support virtual firewall
• Monitor and maintain virtual firewall
• Explain the types, purpose and operation of fail-over
• Install appropriate topology to support cable-based or LANbased fail-over
• Explain the hardware, software and licensing requirements for high-availability
• Configure the Security Appliance for active/standby fail-over
• Configure the Security Appliance for stateful fail-over
• Configure the Security Appliance for active-active fail-over
• Verify fail-over operation
• Recover from a fail-over
• Allocate resources to virtual firewalls
• Configure AAA services for the Security Appliance
• Configure ACS for Security Appliance support
• Configure Security Appliance to use AAA feature
• Configure authentication using both local and external databases
• Configure authorization using an external database
• Configure the ACS server for downloadable ACLs
• Configure accounting of connection start/stop
• Verify AAA operation
• Configure routing and switching on a Security Appliance
• Enable DHCP server and relay functionality
• Configure VLANs on a Security Appliance interface
• Configure Security Appliance to pass multi-cast traffic
• Configure Security Appliance advanced application layer and modular policy features
• Configure a class-map
• Configure a policy-map
• Configure a service-policy
• Configure a ftp-map
• Configure a http-map
• Configure an inspection protocol
• Explain the function of protocol inspection
• Explain DNS guard feature
• Describe the AIP-SSM HW and SW
• Load IPS SW in the AIP-SSM
• Verify AIP-SSM
• Configure an IPS modular policy
• Describe the CSC-SSM HW and SW
• Configure a typed class map
• Configure a typed policy map
• Use typed policy maps to specify granular inspection parameters for a policy map
• Configure regex class maps
• Create regular expressions
• Load CSC SW on the SSM
• Verify the CSC-SSM
• Divert traffic to the CSC-SSM
• Initialize the CSC-SSM
• Monitor and manage an installed Security Appliance
• Obtain and apply OS updates
• Backup and restore configurations and software
• Explain the Security Appliance file management system
• Perform password/lockout recovery procedures
• Obtain and upgrade license keys
• Configure passwords for various access methods: Telnet, serial, enable, SSH
• Configure various access methods: Telnet, SSH, ASDM
• Configure command authorization and privilege levels
• Configure local username database
• Verify access control methods
• Enable ASDM functionality
• Verify a Security Appliance configuration via ASDM
• Verify the licensing available on a Security Appliance
• Add, delete, and modify syslog messages

These exams are required for a number of other certifications, some of which include: CCSP Certification Information Systems Security (INFOSEC) Professional Recognition, Cisco Information Security Specialists, Cisco IPS Specialists, Cisco IOS Security Specialists, Cisco Network Admission Control Specialists.

b. Go online and search for job openings for network security professionals.

Which employers require some type of certification?

Too many to list. All of the employers for these positions required some type of certification. The most frequent certifications by employers were CISSP, SSCP, and CCSE. In addition to security specific certifications many employers required a number of years experience and other industry certifications such as CCNA, CCIE, MCSE, and CCNP. Also, some employers required experience with ISO standards as well as an undergraduate degree.

c. If you are unfamiliar with the OSI Reference Model for communications please review the information at the following:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model .

d. Which, if any items mentioned in the text for the "Information Security

Common Body of Knowledge" initially seem not to belong in the study of Network and Information Security? Is there some a justification for including

- All ten domains are relevant to Network and Information security. However, if I had to choose based on an initial glance I would say Business Continuity Planning might seem to be misplaced as something to be figured out by executives within the company.

a. Once managers have gone to the trouble of creating a security policy, how can they make sure that all personnel read and understand it?

- The best way for managers to make sure that all personnel can read and understand the security policy they have created is through policy support documents. These documents provide levels of detail supporting the policy and explaining the system development, management, and operational requirements. These supporting documents should include regulations, standards and baselines, guidelines, and procedures.

b. If an organization creates an "Asset and Data Classification System" should they use the same names that have been attributed, by movies and TV, to the US military or should these be avoided and why.

- Asset and data classification systems for commercial businesses should be named according to the needs of the business world. A common classification system for commercial business may include public information, business sensitive or business confidential, customer confidential, and trade secret. This is more practical for business because of the nature of what they are trying to secure. The U.S. military classifications must be stricter and warrants a higher investment in security because it is for the protection of national secrets and information. Not to say that business security is not important… it just does not have the same level of importance as national security.

c. Why would separation of security related duties improve the overall security?

- Separation of security related duties improve overall security because it limits any individual’s ability to cause harm or carry out theft. By having a system in place that requires a separation of duties it forces two or more individuals to conspire. It is less likely for a devious endeavor to be construed if an individual must rely on and approach another individual for the plan to culminate and succeed. By trusting someone in such a scheme all parties involved place themselves at higher risk because they must fully trust everyone else involved. They must trust people who have proved to be dishonest just by agreeing to be involved in such a conspiracy.

d. What types of assets should be assessed with quantitative risk analysis and what types should be assed with qualitative risk analysis?

- Data integrity loss, accidental errors, abuse of access privileges by employees, and destruction of data are examples of things that could be assessed with quantitative risk analysis. Quantitative risk analysis (somewhat measurable) in these types of areas helps protect, for example, sensitive data. On the other hand, power loss, communication loss, computer virus, natural disaster, and successful unauthorized system access by an outsider are examples of things that could be assessed through qualitative risk analysis. Qualitative risk analysis (estimation) could help protect assets against substantial unknown loss through awareness that the threat vulnerability, etc exists.

a. Why don’t more commercial operating systems meet the highest security requirements described in the Orange Book?

- The short answer is time, money, and necessity. Commercial operating systems focus on sale to businesses and consumers. Although it may be argued that both businesses and consumers need a level of security for their data; their data just does not need the level of security required by government level privileged data. Because of the lack of necessity for extremely high level security outside of governmental realms it would be difficult for operating system developers to warrant investing the extra money and time in specialized development of high level secure operating systems.

b. Suppose all of you are on the IT management team for a new e-commerce company that is in the process of starting up. The company will sell custom-printed items (such as mugs, tee shirts, and golf balls) to businesses and individuals. You are assigned the task of designing a network for the new company, and senior managers demand that the network be completely secure. It is decided to base the new system on a theoretical model. Which of the confidentiality and integrity models would you choose, and why? Discuss this as a group and reach a conclusion.

- To meet the requirements of the company, I would propose the Bell-La Padula Model. I would propose this model because security was the primary focus of upper level management. The Bell-La Padula Model addresses that main focus. This model accomplishes the requirements of upper level managements request because the model addresses confidentiality, describes enforcement of access control, mandatory access control, discretionary access control, based on multi-level security policies, entities are labeled with security levels, security levels are partially ordered, incorporates security means, reference monitor controls actual access rights, and an access control matrix specifies general access permissions.

c. What level of Common Criteria Certification has Microsoft obtained for Window 2003 and XP: any major criticisms of CC-certified versions of Windows?

- Microsoft Windows Server 2003 has achieved evaluation assurance level 4 Common Criteria certification. In performing a couple of internet searches, it seemed that Microsoft mostly received praise for the certification level of Server 2003. The harshest comment stated that the certification should be viewed as a starting point for Microsoft security future. It seems that most people who were writing about this topic were just happy that Microsoft was taking an interest in developing a secure operating system. Aside from the lack of criticism for Windows Server 2003, I did find a bevy of critical articles regarding the Common Criteria, Microsoft, and versions of Windows that are known to be less secure.

a. Why are DRP and BCP critical to IT/Networking departments of companies and organizations?

- The disaster recovery plan (DRP) and the business continuity plan (BCP) are critical to the IT/Networking departments of organizations because it is the responsibility of that department to design, implement, and procure such plans. Although such plans have been expanded to other aspects of businesses these plans still have a primary focus on systems (a responsibility of IT/Networking departments). Preventing the failure of these systems and having a sound plan in place in the event of an emergency are an essential responsibility of companies which, in turn, delegate that responsibility to their IT/Networking departments. These plans are critical to the IT/Networking departments because the absence of these plans put companies at great risk of failure in the event of unexpected and undesirable circumstances. This, of course, places IT/Networking department at great risk if they neglect to do their duty in designing, implementing, and procuring a sound DRP and BCP. In the event of a disaster, a failed company equates to no IT/Networking department.

b. Briefly summarize a case where a company was harmed or bankrupted by a disaster.

- At 2:25pm on Monday, January 15th, 1990 network managers at AT&T's Network Operations Center in Bedminster, N.J. began noticing an alarming number of red warning signals from various parts of their world-wide network. Within seconds, the giant 72 screen video array that graphically represented the network was crisscrossed with a tangle of red lines as a rapidly spreading malfunction leapfrogged from one computer-operated switching center to another. The standard procedures the managers tried first failed to bring the network back up to speed and for nine hours, while engineers raced to stabilize the network, almost 50% of the calls placed through AT&T failed to go through. Until 11:30pm, when network loads were low enough to allow the system to stabilize, AT&T alone lost more than $60 million in unconnected calls. Still unknown is the amount of business lost by airline reservations systems, hotels, rental car agencies and other businesses that relied on the telephone network.

(http://users.csc.calpoly.edu/~jdalbey/SWE/Papers/att_collapse.html)

In 1990, 75 million phone calls across the U.S. went unanswered after a single switch at one of AT&T's 114 switching centers suffered a minor mechanical problem and shut down the center. When the center came back up soon afterwards, it sent a message to other centers, which in turn caused them to trip, shut down and reset. The culprit turned out to be an error in a single line of code--not hackers, as some claimed at the time--that had been added during a highly complex software upgrade. American Airlines alone estimated this small error cost it 200,000 reservations. (http://news.zdnet.com/2100-9595_22-177729.html)

c. Locate on the Web a DRP checklist for a small business and share with the group its strong points.

- The following checklist was obtained at http://www.continuitycentral.com/feature0501.htm

“Business continuity and disaster recovery checklist for small business owners

Capital One has developed a new checklist to help small businesses in the US to prepare for both large and small incidents:

1) Develop a business continuity / disaster recovery plan

- Establish a disaster-recovery team of employees who know your business best, and assign responsibilities for specific tasks.

- Identify your risks (kinds of disasters you're most likely to experience).

- Prioritize critical business functions and how quickly these must be recovered.

- Establish a disaster recovery location where employees may work off-site and access critical back-up systems, records and supplies.

- Obtain temporary housing for key employees, their families and pets.

- Update and test your plan at least annually.

2) Alternative operational locations

Determine which alternatives are available. For example:

- A satellite or branch office of your business.

- The office of a business partner or even an employee.

- Home or hotel.

3) Backup site.

Equip your backup operations site with critical equipment, data files and supplies:

- Power generators.

- Computers and software.

- Critical computer data files (payroll, accounts payable and receivable, customer orders, inventory).

- Phones/radios/TVs.

- Equipment and spare parts.

- Vehicles, boats and spare parts.

- Digital cameras.

- Common supplies.

- Supplies unique to your business (order forms, contracts, etc.).

- Basic first aid/sanitary supplies, potable water and food.

4) Safeguard your property

Is your property prepared to survive a hurricane or other disaster:

- Your building?

- Your equipment?

- Your computer systems?

- Your company vehicles?

- Your company records?

- Other company assets?

5) Contact information

Do you have current and multiple contact information (e.g., home and cell phone numbers, personal e-mail addresses) for:

- Employees?

- Key customers?

- Important vendors, suppliers, business partners?

- Insurance companies?

- Is contact information accessible electronically for fast access by all employees?

6) Communications

Do you have access to multiple and reliable methods of communicating with your employees:

- Emergency toll-free hotline?

- Website?

- Cell phones?

- Satellite phones?

- Pagers?

- BlackBerry(TM)?

- Two-way radios?

- Internet?

- E-mail?

7) Employee preparation

Make sure your employees know:

- Company emergency plan.

- Where they should relocate to work.

- How to use and have access to reliable methods of communication, such as satellite/cell phones, e-mail, voice mail, Internet, text messages, BlackBerry(TM), PDAs.

- How they will be notified to return to work.

- Benefits of direct deposit of payroll and subscribe to direct deposit.

- Emergency company housing options available for them and their family.

8) Customer preparation

Make sure your key customers know:

- Your emergency contact information for sales and service support (publish on your website).

- Your backup business or store locations (publish on your website).

- What to expect from your company in the event of a prolonged disaster displacement.

- Alternate methods for placing orders.

- Alternate methods for sending invoice payments in the event of mail disruption.

9) Evacuation order

When a mandatory evacuation is issued, be prepared to grab and leave with critical office records and equipment:

- Company business continuity / disaster recovery plan and checklist.

- Insurance policies and company contracts.

- Company checks, plus a list of all bank accounts, credit cards, ATM cards.

- Employee payroll and contact information.

- Desktop/laptop computers.

- Customer records, including orders in progress.

- Photographs/digital images of your business property.

- Post disaster contact information inside your business to alert emergency workers how to reach you.

- Secure your building and property.

10) Cash management

Be prepared to meet emergency cash-flow needs:

- Take your checkbook and credit cards in the event of an evacuation.

- Keep enough cash on hand to handle immediate needs.

- Use Internet banking services to monitor account activity, manage cash flow, initiate wires, pay bills.

- Issue corporate cards to essential personnel to cover emergency business expenses.

- Reduce dependency on paper checks and postal service to send and receive payments (consider using electronic payment and remote deposit banking services).

11) Post-disaster recovery procedures

- Consider how your post-disaster business may differ from today.

- Plan whom you will want to contact and when.

- Assign specific tasks to responsible employees.

- Track progress and effectiveness.

- Document lessons learned and best practices.”

The whole list could be considered “strong point.” However, one point that seems particularly strong is to “establish a disaster-recovery team of employees…” I could see this as being an extremely strong point, I mean, what good is a plan if no one is in place to carry out the plan when needed.

a. Given the Security Professional's Ethical Dilemma detailed on page 154 in the text, what should you do?

- Without question, you should turn in the pharmaceutical company. Under the ISC2 guidelines, I believe protecting society and acting legally holds more weight than protecting principals and professions. Of course, this is why ethical conduct is often great in theory, but difficult to practice… it may cause you harm to do the right thing and many people are not willing to put the best interest of the masses above their own best interest.

b. What is the methodology of the recent security problem with the delivery of malicious code inside of pdf files. Examine, if a compromised server required, what browsers versions are vulnerable, what versions of Adobe Acrobat Reader are vulnerable, what fixes are suggested for popular browsers, etc.

- The security problem regarding PDF files was called “Trojan.Pidief.A” by Symantec. It is a malware file that lowers security settings and downloads more malicious executables on to the compromised computer. The modified document is distributed via email with filenames such as ‘BILL.pdf’ or ‘INVOICE.pdf’. When the PDF is executed malicious code tries to disable the Windows Firewall and then downloads a remote file via FTP. The remote file is ‘ldr.exe’ and is a downloader trojan. This exploit affects Adobe Acrobat/Reader versions 9 and earlier as well as Firefox and IE web browsers. Until you update Adobe with the developed patches it was recommended to: Disable JavaScript in Adobe Reader and Acrobat, prevent Internet Explorer from automatically opening PDF documents, use caution when opening untrusted PDF files, and make sure your antivirus software is installed running the latest virus signature files.

c. Considering that a recent study found that a significant amount of on-line attacks focus upon home users and their browsers, which commonly available browsers have been found to have the fewest security flaws?

- On February 7, 2009, a review that tested for the most secure of popular web browsers was published. The article can be found at http://www.pcadvisor.co.uk/news/index.cfm?newsid=110482. The conclusion of the review was that all of the popular web browsers tested (IE, Chrome, Safari, Firefox, and Opera) have nearly zero risk. This conclusion came with the caveat that to achieve near zero risk the browser and operating system used must fully patches including all add-ons and plug-ins. However, in a number of internet searches, I found the consensus was that Opera had the fewest security flaws.