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Ancient Greek Civilization Study Guide

 

Chronology:

(Later dates to earlier Ex. 478 is after 479 – ALL B.C.E dates)

· 478 – Greeks form league to carry war to Persia

· 479 – Greeks defeat Persians in second year of campaign

· 480 – Invasion of Xerxes

§ Battle of Thermopylae

§ Battle of Salamis

· 487 – Athenian archons elected by lot

· 487 – First ostracism at Athens

· 490 – Battle of Marathon

· 494 – Battle of Lade

· 498 – Greeks sack Sardis

· 508 – Cleisthenes starts reforming constitution of Athens: details of constitution

§ Ionian revolt

· 546 – 511 – Peisistratid tyranny firmly established at Athens (Hippias and Hipparchus)

§ Effects of tyranny on Athens

§ Abolition of Peisistratid tyranny: aristocratic maneuvering for pre-eminence

· 540 – Complete Spartan dominance of Souther Peloponnese achieved

· 546 – Cyrus king of Persia conquers Lidia (Croesus)

· 580s – Political disturbance at Athens

· 594 – Archonship of Solon

§ The reforms of Solon: moral orientation, Seisachtheia, constitutional settlement, other laws

· 630 – Failed coup of Cylon the Alcmaeonid at Athens

· 650 – Cypselus tyrant in Corinth

· 725 – Homer: Iliad and Odyssey

· 7^th Century – Earliest Lyric poetry

§ Lycurgan reforms at Sparta: hoplites and helots; peculiarities of constitution

· 776 – Traditional date for first Olympic games

§ Colonization westward and eastward (Black Sea)

· 8^th Century – Revival of population, trade-links, pottery, literacy (Phoenician alphabet)

· 1200 – 1100 – End of great Bronze Age civilizations

§ Troy

§ Hittite archives fall silent

§ Dark Age conditions

· 1250 – Linear B tablets (from Pylos and Knossos)

· Minoan Civilization – Knossos, palaces, archaeological evidence

 

People to be familiar with:

· Zeus - King of the gods and husband of Hera, Zeus claims neutrality in the mortals’ conflict and often tries to keep the other gods from participating in it. However, he throws his weight behind the Trojan side for much of the battle after the sulking Achilles has his mother, Thetis, ask the god to do so.

· Hera - Queen of the gods and Zeus’s wife, Hera is a conniving, headstrong woman. She often goes behind Zeus’s back in matters on which they disagree, working with Athena to crush the Trojans, whom she passionately hates.

· Athena - The goddess of wisdom, purposeful battle, and the womanly arts; Zeus’s daughter. Like Hera, Athena passionately hates the Trojans and often gives the Achaeans valuable aid.

· Aphrodite - Goddess of love and daughter of Zeus, Aphrodite is married to Hephaestus but maintains a romantic relationship with Ares. She supports Paris and the Trojans throughout the war, though she proves somewhat ineffectual in battle.

· Apollo - A son of Zeus and twin brother of the goddess Artemis, Apollo is god of the arts and archery. He supports the Trojans and often intervenes in the war on their behalf.

· Hephaistos - God of fire and husband of Aphrodite, Hephaestus is the gods’ metalsmith and is known as the lame or crippled god. Although the text doesn’t make clear his sympathies in the mortals’ struggle, he helps the Achaeans by forging a new set of armor for Achilles and by rescuing Achilles during his fight with a river god.

· Achilles - The son of the military man Peleus and the sea-nymph Thetis. The most powerful warrior in the Iliad, Achilles commands the Myrmidons, soldiers from his homeland of Phthia in Greece. Proud and headstrong, he takes offense easily and reacts with blistering indignation when he perceives that his honor has been slighted. Achilles’ wrath at Agamemnon for taking his war prize, the maiden Briseis, forms the main subject of the Iliad.

· Agamemnon - King of Mycenae and leader of the Achaean army; brother of King Menelaus of Sparta. Arrogant and often selfish, Agamemnon provides the Achaeans with strong but sometimes reckless and self-serving leadership. Like Achilles, he lacks consideration and forethought. Most saliently, his tactless appropriation of Achilles’ war prize, the maiden Briseis, creates a crisis for the Achaeans, when Achilles, insulted, withdraws from the war.

· Helen - Reputed to be the most beautiful woman in the ancient world, Helen left her husband, Menelaus, to run away with Paris. She loathes herself now for the misery that she has caused so many Trojan and Achaean men. Although her contempt extends to Paris as well, she continues to stay with him.

· Priam - King of Troy and husband of Hecuba, Priam is the father of fifty Trojan warriors, including Hector and Paris. Though too old to fight, he has earned the respect of both the Trojans and the Achaeans by virtue of his level-headed, wise, and benevolent rule. He treats Helen kindly, though he laments the war that her beauty has sparked.

· Hector - A son of King Priam and Queen Hecuba, Hector is the mightiest warrior in the Trojan army. He mirrors Achilles in some of his flaws, but his bloodlust is not so great as that of Achilles. He is devoted to his wife, Andromache, and son, Astyanax, but resents his brother Paris for bringing war upon their family and city.

· Andromache - Hector’s loving wife, Andromache begs Hector to withdraw from the war and save himself before the Achaeans kill him.

· Hecuba - Queen of Troy, wife of Priam, and mother of Hector and Paris.

· Nestor - King of Pylos and the oldest Achaean commander. Although age has taken much of Nestor’s physical strength, it has left him with great wisdom. He often acts as an advisor to the military commanders, especially Agamemnon. Nestor and Odysseus are the Achaeans’ most deft and persuasive orators, although Nestor’s speeches are sometimes long-winded.

· Darius - king of Persia 521–486.

· Xerxes - king of Persia 486?–465 (son of Darius I)

· Solon - Athenian lawgiver and poet. His reforms preserved a class system based on wealth but ended privilege by birth.

· Pisistratus - c605–527 b.c., tyrant of Athens 560–527 (father of Hipparchus and Hippias).

· Hippias - Athenian tyrant (527-510) who governed with his brother Hipparchus. After his brother's assassination, he ruled brutally until he was exiled by the Spartans (510).

· Cleisthenes – Reformed Athenian constitution and led the Ionian population of the region in a revolt against the Dorians.

· Miltiades - Athenian general who defeated the Persians in the Battle of Marathon (490 B.C.).

· Aristeides - Athenian statesman and general who fought in the Battle of Marathon (490) and in the victory over the Persians at Salamis (480).

· Themistocles - Athenian military and political leader. After persuading the Athenians to build a navy, he led the new fleet to victory over Persia in the Battle of Salamis (480).

 

Terms and concepts to be familiar with:

· Timé – (Greek word) means honor, prestige, and cultural good (This is what Greek men are interested in achieving).

· Pentacosiomedimnoi – Top class in Athens; to be in this class you must produce 500+ measures of wet/dry goods. It is from this class that the archons are appointed.

· Hippias - Athenian tyrant (527-510) who governed with his brother Hipparchus. After his brother's assassination, he ruled brutally until he was exiled by the Spartans (510).

· Zeugitae (see - Hoplites)

· Thetes

· Archons - One of the nine principal magistrates of ancient Athens.

· Boule (Council)

· Ecclesia (Assembly)

· Ostracism - (in ancient Greece) temporary banishment of a citizen, decided upon by popular vote.

· Trireme - An ancient Greek or Roman galley or warship, having three tiers of oars on each side.

· Hoplite - a heavily armed foot soldier of ancient Greece.

· Helot - One of a class of serfs in ancient Sparta, neither a slave nor a free citizen

· Ephor - One of a body of five elected magistrates exercising a supervisory power over the kings of Sparta. – Decided if children would become Spartans

· Gerousia – (council of Elders) 28 elected men à distinguished careers (usually were hoplites).

 

Cleisthenes Reforms:

 

Cleisthenes proposed a constitution that made Athens a democracy.  Cleisthenes' reforms changed the basis of Athenian citizenship and the nature of the tribes, which were the political and military divisions of the people.

 

Previously, Athenian citizenship had been based on blood relationship to the four Ionic tribes that had originally settled in Attica. Cleisthenes made the basis for citizenship geographical by dividing Attica into 150 demes.Those living within the boundaries of a deme were put on its roll, and deme rolls were the basic citizenship lists. He allowed everyone living in Attica to become a citizen (though not new people who arrived later).

 

Cleisthenes formed ten tribes.  Each was composed of groups of demes from the city, the coast and the interiors.   Cleisthenes established the council of five hundred, which would be the chief arm of government with all executive administrative control.  Every male citizen was eligible to sit on this council.  It was composed of fifty men chosen by lot from each of the ten tribes.

 

The Assembly, which included all male citizens (but not women, foreigners or slaves), was allowed to veto any of the council's proposals and was the only branch of government that could declare war. His reforms gave every citizen a chance to serve in the government.  Cleisthens successfully prevented tyranny but also undermined the aristocrats.

How it happened that the Greeks defeated the Persian invasions:

 

Themistocles favored an early battle with the Persian fleet, preferably on Greek terms, but as usual other Greek leaders disagreed with him. The Peloponnesians preferred that the fleet concentrated on the defense of the Isthmus. However, as the Athenian contingent made up more than half of the total fleet, Themistocles was able to force a decision by threatening to withdraw all of the Athenians if battle was not offered in the Straights of Salamis. Themistocles could see that this position was favorable to the Greeks because of the tactical disadvantages the large Persian fleet would have trying to maneuver there. The narrow confines of the Straights of Salamis would limit the Persians' ability to maneuver.

On September 22, 480BCE, the Greek fleet held a position between the north coast of the Island of Salamis and the coast of Attica to the northwest of Piraeus. The Persians had deployed facing north in a line three deep, ranging from the Cynosura Promontory on Salamis to Piraeus. Themistocles purposely left the channel between Salamis and Magara open and unguarded, possibly to tempt Xerxes to divide his fleet in the type of tactics the Persians had attempted at Artemision. Xerxes did exactly this, sending his Egyptian contingent around Salamis to take and seal the western channel. The Greek fleet drew up in battle formation facing Heracleion on the shore of Attica, with the Athenians taking the left wing and the Aeginetans the right. The Greek fleet had some 300 warships at its disposal.
On the morning of the battle, the Persians deployed with their right wing held by the Phoenicians and the Ionian ships on the left. While still trying to get into position, the Persians were attacked by the Greeks, who forced the leading Persian ships back upon their comrades, causing disorder in the Persian formation as the Persian ships were already close packed in the narrow confines of the Straight. This was immediately followed by an Athenian flank attack on the Phoenician ships which were pushed back into the Persian center and onto the coast of Attica. Eventually the Greeks made an encircling movement behind the Persian center which proved decisive, and the Ionian Greeks, with their resistance broken, retreated. Xerxes' navy had suffered heavy losses, which were according to Herodotus over 200 ships, and withdrew to Phaleron, from whence it returned eventually to Hellespont. Xerxes was now faced with the impossible task of provisioning his huge army with such a depleted fleet, and he had no option but to withdraw the majority of his forces from Greece.
This defeat of the Persians was caused by a combination of superior Greek tactics and the Persians' own ineptitude in tactical and strategic planning. Xerxes failed to see that a smaller, well-trained and equipped force could prevail over a much larger and less trained and equipped foe. Also, he failed to see that independence was a powerful motivating cause for the Greeks. The victory at Salamis strengthened both the morale and the will of the Greeks, and dealt a fatal blow to the reputation and morale of Xerxes' army.

Xerxes was forced to return to his Empire to prevent widespread revolt encouraged by his defeat. He left part of the Imperial army in Thessaly, Thrace, and Macedonia under Mardonius and Artabazus, while taking the bulk of his army back across the Hellespont to restore control on his Eastern Aegean Coast, where he also sent his fleet for the same purpose. Mardonius had in his force 12,000 cavalry and about 50,000 infantry, of whom some where contingents from Central and Northern Greece. He also had included in this force the Immortals and the Guard Cavalry. The Persian forces in Thessaly, Thrace, and Macedonia were a continued threat to Greek independence and the Greeks soon made plans to deal with them.

 

Homer's complex attitude towards war:

How Herodotus draws distinctions between Greeks and non-Greeks:

 

Chronology:

(Earlier dates to later Ex. 480 is before 31 – ALL B.C.E dates)

• 480 – Battle of Salamis
• 461 – Ostracism of Cimon; attack on powers of Areopagus
• 446/5 – Peace treaty between Athens and Sparta
• 431 – Start of Peloponnesian War
• 430 – 27 – Plague in Athens
• 421 – Peace of Nicias
• 415 – 13 – Expedition to Sicily
• 404 – Athens surrenders to Sparta; temporary establishment of the “Thirty”
• 371 – Thebans defeat Spartans at Leuctra
• 338 – Battle of Chaeronea: Philip of Macedon becomes master of Greece
• 323 – Death of Alexander
• 307 – Antigonus and Demetrius Poliocretes hailed as kings
• 301 – Battle of Ipsos
• 168 – Romans defeat king Perseus of Macedonia
• 146 – Corinth sacked by Romans
• 31 – Octavian (Augustus) defeats Antony and Cleopatra at Battle of Actium

 

Chronology of Books:

1 – Homer

2 – Lyric Poetry

3 – Herodotus

4 – Thucydides

5 – Xenophon

6 – [Aristotle]

7 – Plutarch

 

Geography: (See Ancient Greek Map)

 

Topics for Quotes:

• Thucydides focuses on the utility of history (how things were done) à not focused on dominance à bad things will happen (ex. Plague) that we cannot control.
• Athenian military strategy for the Peloponnesian War – Navy power à make the city one with the port. Think of Athens as an island. Build huge city walls around Athens with one path leading to the port.
• Thucydides – Funeral speech à speech focuses on why Athens is so wonderful (model of leadership) à free, culture (games/sacrifice), refined (but not feminine), open society, education of Greece, and technology.
• Pericles view of human nature à during the Athenian plague à other side of human nature à lawless extravagance.

 

 

Rise of the Modern Irish Nation Study Guide

 

Planter and Gael

• The roots of today’s politics can be traced to the conflict that emerged between the Planter and the Gael
  • Planters- those who settled in Ireland on invitation from the British Crown
    • invited to take the land and harvest it
    • They were English, Scottish or Welsh
  • Gaels- the natives of Ireland
• Britain invaded and tried to conquer Ireland in the 12th century
• But before the 17th century Ireland was only loosely ruled by Britain
  • In reality ruled by an unassimilated group of Gaelic chiefs
  • By 1603 Britain managed to break the control of most of the chiefs
• Gaining control over the province of Ulster proved to be a special case
  • Ulster-  was composed of 9 counties
    • Antrim, Armagh, Derry, Down, Fermanagh, Tyrone, Cavan, Donegal,  and Monaghan
  • It was the hardest area to subdue
  • In 1609 large numbers of Scottish and English protestants were successfully planted there
• Resentment grew between Planter and Gael, especially in Ulster
  • The Gaels were displaced from their land
  • Planters were often left to fight for themselves
    • In Ulster, the British often promised to remove them, but never did
  • Religious hostility was also evident
    • The Gaels were mostly Catholic
    • The Planters were mostly Protestant
    • There was an attempt to force the Catholic Gaels to attend Protestant services and to abolish Catholic Churches

 

Penal Laws

• • • Through the Penal Laws
  • A series of laws that discriminated against Catholics and Dissenters (or Protestant Presbyterians)
    • Or anyone that did not belong to the Church of Ireland
  • The British Crown was careful with imposing these laws at first
    • Not wanting to alienate those richer Catholics in Ireland who did support British rule

 

1641 Catholic Rebellion

• In 1641 a Catholic Gael rebellion took place
  • Initially led by Catholic Gentry
  • It degenerated into sectarian fighting
  • The fighting went on for 10 years
• Ulster was worst hit by the wars
• although the Munster Plantation was temporarily destroyed by the rebellion
  • • The religious/ethnic divide was less stark
    • Some Planters were Catholic
    • And several Gaels had converted to Protestantism

 

James II

• The conflict between Planter and Gael would be further aggravated by the ascent of James II to the English thrown in 1685
• James II was a Catholic
  • He was removed from the thrown during the Glorious Revolution
  • He was replaced by William of Orange (his Protestant nephew/son in law)

 

Battle of the Boyne 1690

• James gathered up an army in order to try and retake the thrown
  • His army was supported by many Irish Catholics
  • He was defeated at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 by William of Orange
  • A large section of William’s troops were Protestants from Ulster
• Though not a truly sectarian battle, it had obvious religious significance
  • For many Ulster Protestants
    • it was about securing the Crown as Protestant and defending against another 1641
  • For many Irish Catholics
    • it was about returning the land back to the Gael
    • and making life easier for Catholics (they hoped the Stuart Kings would end discriminatory laws)

Protestant Ascendancy

• This led to the Protestant Ascendancy
  • A term used to refer to the slow domination of Anglicans as landowners, politicians, and professionals in Ireland
  • Between 1641 until the late 1700s, the Penal Laws were  aggressively applied
    • Catholics were barred from holding office

 

1703 Popery Act

1703 Popery Act- ordered that Catholics must split up their land amongst their heirs

• • The Penal Laws were slowly repealed between 1771 and 1793
    • In 1790 Catholics were given the right to vote

 

1798 Rebellion

• • The slow pace of reform helped make a fleeting alliance between Dissenter Protestants and Catholics for rebellion in 1798
    • Led by Wolfe Tone
    • Usually thought of as the father of Irish Republicanism
    • The rebellion resulted in sectarian fighting
• The repeal of the Penal Laws led to sectarian strife between Catholics and Protestants in Ulster
• Agrarian gangs appeared
  • Such as, the Protestant Peep O Day Boys
  • and Catholic Defenders
  • These gangs were engaged in constant sectarian fighting
• In 1795 the Orange Order was formed
  • In opposition to the United Irishmen who were increasingly being joined by Defenders
  • It was established as a Protestant fraternal organization

 

The Act of Union

• An Act (1800) that officially merged the Kingdoms of Ireland and England
  • Before this time Ireland had its own Parliament
  • Since 1792 it was not legally subsumed to the English Parliament
    • Nevertheless, it was notoriously corrupt

 

Young Ireland Movement

• Young Ireland Movement (made up of both Protestants and Catholics)- the Nation
  • Established by Charles Gavin Duffy and Thomas Davis in 1842
  • Inspired by the Famine and Romantic Nationalism
  • Advocated separation

• The Young Irelanders lead an abortive  rebellion against British rule in 1848
  • Later Duffy started a land reform movement through the Tenant League
  • it united Protestant and Catholic
  • It was a constitutional movement

 

Irish Republican Brotherhood

• James Stephens (a Protestant) was involved in the 1848 rebellion
  • Later created the Irish Republican Brotherhood (1858)
  • A secret organization dedicated to removing British rule and establishing a Republic
  • They became known as the “Fenians”
  • Tried a rebellion in 1867
  • They organized raids on Canada and a dynamite campaign in England
• The connection of Land reform with Irish Nationalist politics would later grow stronger

 

The Land League

• The Land League would be created in 1879- demanding an end to landlordism
• Which would lead to the Land War (1800-82)- a period of violence between landlords and land reform activists
  • initially a cross community movement
  • Later it became exclusively Catholic

 

National League

• Charles Stewart Parnell, the Land League’s leader, fully connected the causes of land reform and Irish nationalism
  • Created the National League in 1882- an organization that advocated for land reform and separation
  • A political party accompanied it in goals, the Irish Parliamentary Party
    • Republicanism and Nationalism would coexist within one movement for awhile
    • The party was formed by Issac Butt in 1874 (the creator of the Home Rule League) but led by Parnell by 1880
  • The cause of land reform was more or less solved through various Land Acts
    • But the IPP went on to organize itself behind a Home Rule Movement

 

The Home Rule Bills

• • 1st HR Bill of 1886- never passed the House of Commons

 

• • 2nd HR Bill 1893- was defeated in the House of Lords

 

William Gladstone

• The first HR Bill was introduced at Westminster by William Gladstone
  • Leader of the British Liberal Party and PM of Britain
  • He was a reformer in many ways
    • Extended the vote in Britain to every adult male who owned a house
    • Abolished the paying of tithes in Ireland
  • He supported the idea of Home Rule for many reasons
    • He supported the idea of self government
    • There was a need to placate Irish Nationalism
    • He need the support of the IPP in Parliament
• The Liberal Party needed the IPP in order to form a government
  • The 1885 elections had given 85 seats to the IPP

 

Liberal Unionists

• However, a section of Gladstone’s party were opposed to Irish Home Rule
  • They argued that granting it would result in eventual complete separation
  • And this would lead to the end of the entire union
  • This group became known as Liberal Unionists

Lord Asquith

• The third HR Bill was introduced by Lord Asquith
  • Liberal party leader and PM (since 1906)
  • The IPP once again held the balance of power
  • Asquith made a deal with the leader of the IPP (John Redmond) to introduce and support a HR bill
  • In exchange for Redmond’s support for reducing the power of the House of Lords
• The deal was kept and the 1911 Parliament Act was passed
  • Giving the House of Commons the right to ignore a House of Lords veto in some circumstances
• The third HR bill was introduced in 1912
  • It finally passed in 1914 by Royal Assent after being rejected 3 times by the Lords

 

Home Rule and Ulster Unionism

• Ulster Unionists created a formable resistance to Home Rule
  • Aided by the lag time between HR bills
  • And spurred by the worry of sell out by the Conservatives
  • Before the assent of Andrew Bonar Law within the Conservative Party this relationship was slightly tenuous
• Southern Protestant Unionists existed and were vehemently opposed to HR
  • But they never managed to form mass appeal (Landowners and Merchants)
  • The Irish Unionist Party – had been developed earlier with both northerners and southerners included
• The Ulster Unionist Council (UUC) was created in 1905
  • Which served as a strong organizational force against HR
• This organization would grow into a political party

 

The Ulster Unionist Party

– The Ulster Unionist Party- whose elite members were both southern and Northern but whose mass support came from Ulster

 

The Solemn League and Covenant

• In 1912 they organized the Solemn League and Covenant
  • A declaration which rejected HR and promised to “use all means necessary” to reject it

 

Ulster Volunteers

• In 1913 James Craig created the Ulster Volunteers
  • 100,000 strong militia recruited from the signatories of the covenant
• Asquith was organizing to send troops incase of unrest

 

The Curragh Incident

• • Then the Curragh Incident (Curragh Mutiny) occurred
  • 57 out of 70 of the camps officers threatened to resign if told to March on Ulster
  • Asquith backed down and announced that the British Army would not be used against Ulster Unionists

 

The Gaelic League

• The Gaelic League- established by Douglas Hyde in 1893
  • • The league’s purpose was to encourage the use and appreciation for the Irish Language
    • It took no official political stance

 

The Gaelic Athletic Association

• The Gaelic Athletic Association- was established in 1884
  • The purpose of which was to encourage the playing of Gaelic games (such as Hurling and Gaelic Football)
  • It was a primarily cultural organization and took no official political stance
  • However, until 1971 it banned its members from playing “foreign” (meaning British) sport

 

Sinn Fein

• Sinn Fein- a political party which was founded in 1906 by Arthur Griffith
  • it was a pacifist party committed to Irish Independence under a Dual Monarchy
  • By actively recruiting GAA and Gaelic League members, Griffith organized a rump grass roots movement
  • The party itself was not initially popular
  • Griffith promoted a “self help” ideology
  • Many of its members and followers were also Irish Volunteers

 

The Irish Volunteers

• The Irish Volunteers- a militia organized in 1913 in support HR
  • in direct response to the Ulster Volunteers
  • It was created by the IRB
  • They also arranged to smuggle guns from Germany
  • And managed to raise about 180,000 men
• Its original leadership were all IRB members
  • The Volunteers were founded in part by Patrick Pearse
  • A cultural nationalist, high ranking IRB member, and an eventual leader of the Easter Rising
  • He was also a poet (“The Coming Revolution,” and “Ghosts”)
• However, Redmond managed to convince them to let him hand pick their leaders

 

Easter Rising

• When the WWI broke out the Irish Volunteers split
  • Redmond wanted the group to support the war effort and volunteer to join the Irish Brigade of the British Army
  • The majority agreed and went off to fight in the war
• About 13,000 decided that national liberation at home was more important and kept the name Irish Volunteers
  • Most were IRB members
  • they mistakenly became known as “Sinn Fein Volunteers” or “Shinners”
  • Their political stance was not popular at the time
• The IRB section of the group wanted to conduct a rebellion against the British as soon as possible
  • But their leader, Eoin MacNeill did not
  • The IRB members went ahead with plans to do so anyway
• At the same time another organization, The Irish Citizens Army (ICA) was also planning a rebellion

 

• • an organization that originated as a defense unit in support of trade union activity
  • It was led by James Connolly, a socialist who wanted to free Irelands workers
  • It had about 200 members
• The rebellion was thus planned by the IRB section of the Volunteers in association with the ICA
• During Easter week of 1916 the rebellion went ahead in Dublin (1,250 men, and one woman, took part)
  • Known as the Easter Rising
  • The group managed to seize key locations in the city
    • Such as the General Post Office
    • were Patrick Pearse read a Proclamation establishing a republic
  • It lasted 6 days before being suppressed by the British Army
• The Easter Rising was initially met with general public hostility
  • Many ordinary citizens had been killed during the crossfire ( about 220)
  • it had inspired a destructive riot in Dublin’s slums
  • And the Proclamation had referred to the Central Powers as their “gallant allies”
• This attitude began to change in par with the British response to the Rising
  • Over 3,000 people were arrested as suspects
  • 1,000 were detained without trail
    • a large percentage of which had nothing to do with the rising
    • But many of whom belonged to Sinn Fein
  • 17 were executed (all of which were involved)
• By a fluke Sinn Fein was given the credit for the rising
  • And began to receive more votes in local elections
• In the December 1918 parliamentary elections Sinn Fein received 85% of the Irish Vote

 

Partition/ The Government of Ireland Act of 1920/Tha Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921

• **The Government of Ireland Act of 1920
  • Partitioned the island
  • It created 2 parliaments under British jurisdiction (26 southern counties under one and 6 counties under the other)
  • The six county Northern statelet consisted of a 2/3rd protestant majority
  • If it had been nine it would have been 56% protestant and 44 percent Catholic
• At the end of the Irish War of Independence
  • both the British and the Dublin Parliament attempted to renegotiate the Act
• **The Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921- the Treaty gave dominion status to Ireland (creating the Irish Free State)

 

 

Essays

1) Describe the animosity that built up between Planter and Gael between the 12^th century and the events of 1690, and analyze why this maybe of particular importance in reference to Ulster.

 

The Gael’s are natives to the island of Ireland. The Planter’s were people of English, Welsh, or Scottish dissent that were invited by the British Crown to settle in Ireland and take land and harvest it. The beginning of this divide began when Britain tried to conquer Ireland in the 12^th century. However, prior to the 17^th century the island was not entirely ruled by Britain. Ireland was ruled by a group of Gaelic chiefs. By 1603 Britain broke the control of most of those chiefs. Ulster proved to be the hardest area to gain control as the province was comprised of nine counties. In 1609 a large number of Scottish and English Protestants were planted in Ulster. This caused resentment between Planter and Gael, especially in Ulster. This resentment was due to the Gael’s being displaced from their land and the Planter’s being left to fight for themselves. The British promised to remove the Gael’s, but never lived up to that promise. In addition, there was also religious hostility. The Gaels were mostly Catholic and the Planters were mostly Protestant. The hostility grew from an attempt to force Catholic Gaels to attend Protestant services and to abolish Catholic services. Through the penal laws Catholics, dissenters, and anyone who did not belong to the Church of Ireland were discriminated against. The British Crown was careful with imposing these laws at first for fear of alienating richer Catholics who supported British rule. However, in 1641 a Catholic Gael rebellion took place. The rebellion lasted for ten years and was initially led by Catholic gentry, but evolved into sectarian fighting. Ulster was worst hit by the wars. The religious divide became less stark as some Planters became Catholic and some Gaels became Protestants. Even though religious differences would become less bleak, the conflict between Planter and Gael would be further aggravated by the ascent of James II to the English thrown in 1685. James II was a Catholic and was removed from the thrown during the Glorious Revolution. His replacement was William of Orange, James’ Protestant nephew/son-in-law. James assembled his army in an attempt to take back his thrown. His army was supported by many Irish Catholics. James was defeated by William of Orange in this fight known as the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. William’s troops were mostly Protestants from Ulster which gave this battle religious significance. For many Ulster Protestants this battle was about securing the Crown as Protestant and defending against another rebellion as happened in 1641. For many Irish Catholics the battle was about returning the land back to the Gael and making life easier for Catholics. The defeat of James by William led to the Protestant ascendancy which refers to a slow domination of Anglicans as landowners, politicians, and professionals in Ireland and a tough life for Catholics.

 

2) Describe the problems associated with passing the 3^rd Home Rule Bill and the events surrounding the rise of Ulster Unionism. Then analyze why Britain did not simply face down Unionism.

 

The 3^rd Home Rule Bill was introduced by Lord Asquith, the liberal party leader and Prime Minister since 1906. Asquith made a deal with the leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party, John Redmond, to introduce and support a Home Rule Bill in exchange for Redmond’s support in reducing the power of the House of Lords. The deal was kept and the 1911 Parliamentary Act was passed. This gave the House of Commons the right to ignore a House of Lords veto in certain circumstances. The 3^rd Home Rule Bill was introduced in 1912. It finally passed in 1914 by Royal Assent after being rejected by the House of Lords three times. However, Ulster Unionists were resistant to Home Rule. This was aided by the lag time between Home Rule Bills and spurred by the worry of sell out by the Conservatives. Southern Protestant Unionists were also against Home Rule, but never gained the support of landowners and merchants. The Ulster Unionists Council was created in 1905 which was a strong organizational force against Home Rule. This organization grew into a political party, The Ulster Unionist Party. The elite members of the party came from both the North and the South but the mass support came from Ulster. The Party had two prominent leaders, Baron Carson and James Craig. Baron Carson decided to organize the anti-Home Rule movement around a partition cause and James Craig organized grass roots support. In 1912 they organized the Solemn League and Covenant. This declared the rejection of Home Rule and would use all means necessary in their rejection. In 1913 Craig formed the Ulster Volunteers which was a militia recruited from the signatories of the covenant and in 1914 Craig and Carson smuggled guns from Germany. Asquith organized troops incase of unrest. Then the Curragh Incident occurred in which 57 out of 70 of the camps officers threatened to resign if they were ordered to march on Ulster. Asquith backed down and announced that the British Army would not be used against Ulster Unionists.

 

What is:

n **The Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC)- Northern Ireland’s regular policing service

 

What is:

• **RUC inherited its recruits from the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC)

• This had been the police service in Ireland during British rule

• It had been primarily Catholic (though not in the higher ranks)

• However, by the time of the Anglo-Irish War this force was targeted as anti-nationalist

 

Difference between:

• **In 1922 the RIC was divided into two forces:

• The Garda for the Free State

• And the RUC- originally 17% percent Catholic

• But it soon fell to 10%

 

• The Ulster Special Constabulary was an auxiliary force split into 3 sections

• **B Specials- part-time police not stationed away from home

• **The latter two were exclusively protestant recruited primarily from the Ulster Volunteer Force (formally known as the Ulster Volunteers)

 

Who is: (Know Quote)

• Sir Basil Brooke (or Basil Brookenborough)- PM of Northern Ireland from 1943 to 1963:

• “we would appeal to loyalists…to employ protestant lads and lassies.”

 

Know Articles:

• The 1937 Constitution – adopted by referendum, and whose drafting was overseen by De Valera

• Article 44- recognizing the “Special Position” of the Catholic Church

• Article 41- banned divorce

• Articles 2 and 3- extended a territorial claim over the north

• 2- defined the national territory to be the entire island

• 3-  acknowledged that the laws of the Republic would only be in force in the 26 counties, “pending the reintegration of the national territory”

 

What was:

• In 1949 the British would pass the Ireland Act of 1949

• Which recognized the existence of the Republic as a sovereign state

• And guarantee that Northern Ireland would stay within the union as long as a majority of its citizens wanted to

 

Who was: (Know suggested reforms)

o In 1963 Terence O’Neill became the 4th Prime Minister of Northern Ireland

n From the Ulster Unionist Party

n And someone who wanted to reform the Northern Ireland State

o He suggested that:

n council politics should be cleaned up

n Including the housing system

n The franchise should be extended fully to Catholics

n And an ombudsman position should be established

 

What was:

o By 1967 the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association(NICRA) was formed

n It was prepared to use civil disobedience as well as pressure group activity

n It produced the following demands:

o One man one vote

o The end of gerrymandering

o Equitable housing (by establishing a points system)

o End of the Special Powers Act

o End B-Specials

o Establishment of a local government complaints system

 

What it did: (Know incident)

o NICRA organized a series of sit ins and marches in order to pressure the Northern Ireland government into adopting its demands

 

Who are:

n Apprentice Boys of Derry ( a Protestant Fraternal Organization dedicated to celebrating the Siege of Derry)

 

What was:

n The Peoples Democracy Movement- was formed by leftist Queens University students who were both Protestant and Catholic

o They did not go along with the halt and planned a march from Belfast to Derry in January 1969

n Mimicking Martin Luther King’s march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama

n Around 40 PDs took part

n They were attacked by groups of Loyalists along the way

o The most famous of these attacks was the one at Burntollet Bridge:

n An ambush was set for the marchers as they came off the bridge (armed with sticks and bottles)

n It is alleged that the attackers were aided by off duty B-Specials

o When the marchers finally reached Derry rioting ensued between:

o Supporters of the march who amassed in order to protect them from loyalists

o And the RUC

o The RUC broke into Houses and arrested many Catholics in the Bogside area of Derry

o In response to this, barricades were built by the residents of the Bogside to keep out the RUC

o In April of 1969 a Derry man died as a result of a beating received by a member of the RUC

o Also O’Neill resigned after an embarrassing election result

 

What was:

o In July of 1969 the Derry Citizens Defense Association was created

n Its purpose was to defend the Bogside from the RUC

n And to enact policing in the area

o IRA members were active in this organization, but so were many other nationalist/republican groups

o The group took the stance of being peaceful

n But ready for defense, and maybe even offense, if necessary

 

Battle of the Bogside

What was:

o The Battle of the Bogside occurs

n A series of clashes between RUC and Bogside residents

n From August 12th to 15th 1969

n Residents are armed with rocks, sticks, and petrol bombs

n The RUC with batons, small shields, CS Gas

 

Know about rioting & Burning of Homes on Bombay Street:

o On the night of the 14th rioting broke out between Protestants and Catholics

o A protestant loyalist mob burned all the Catholic homes on Bombay Street

o The rioting lasted until August 17th

o 7 people were killed

o Around 1,000 Catholic families were dispossessed from their homes

o As were about half as many Protestant families

 

When the British Army came & for what purpose:

o The British Army was sent in on the 14th to avoid any sectarian fights

n Their orders were to relieve the RUC

n But not enter the Bogside

 

What was:

n And the Falls Curfew (Or Belfast Curfew)- between July 3-5th 1970, during which the area was locked down and searched

 

What was & when was it introduced:

o And the introduction of Internment in August of 1971

KNOW ALL (HINT, HINT)

n A major sweep of nationalist areas was done by the Army and RUC

n suspects were arrested and detained based on rather bad intelligence

n Within 2 days:

o around 1,800 Catholics were put into camps

o Along with around 110 Protestants

 

Who was:

n Its leader (of the Provisional Irish Republican Army), Cathal Goulding, had taken the movement down a Marxist line

What argument about what the IRA & Sinn Fein should do:

o He argued:

n Protestant and Catholic workers needed to unite before a United Ireland could be established

n a campaign of violence would therefore be counterproductive

n against the use of abstentionism within Sinn Fein

o The IRA’s political arm- or political party

o Goulding proposed dropping the policy in reference to the South

 

Know about the split:

o During the 1970 Sinn Fein Ard Fheis (annual conference)

n several members walked out and formed another group, after the meeting voted to drop abstentionism in the South

n The group was led by McStiofan and O’Bradaigh

n Creating the Provisional IRA and Provisional Sinn Fein

n those that did not walk out became the Official IRA (also sometimes referred to as the Stickies)

o The Provisionals (or Provos) announced:

o their dedication to the establishment of the Irish Republic as established by the Easter Proclamation of 1916

o Their intent to end British rule

o And their intent to organize defensive operations/ which would led to offensive ones

o And abstensionsim

o McStiofain became the Provisional IRA’s chief of staff

n And O’Bradaigh became the President of Sinn Fein

 

What was:

n and Bloody Sunday (January 1972)- when 13 Catholics were shot and killed (36 wounded) by British Soldiers in Derry during a NICRA march

 

Know 2 sections of resistance:

o There were 2 main articulated sections of resistance to O’Neill’s reformism:

1. One centering around William Craig

2. And the other around another, previously marginalized Unionist politician, the Reverend Ian Paisley

 

Who was:

o Ian Paisley was the leader of the Protestant Unionist Party which he set up in 1966

n he was also the founder of a church known as the Free Presbyterian Church

 

Who was: (Purpose & Aims)

o The UDA was created in 1971

n Out of a large number of defense organizations that already existed in Belfast

n its stated aims were:

o to defend the loyalists community from Republicans

o And to defend the Union with Britain

o Though it also proposed an independent Ulster its earliest years

o By 1972 the organization had about 35,000 members

o It primary activities involved:

n Self policing and community service

n An attempt at establishing no go areas in reference to Republicans

n a sectarian assassination campaign

o Which targeted mostly ordinary Catholics and some Nationalist Politicians

o Such activity was undertaken under the name of the Ulster Freedom Fighters (UFF)

n And paramilitary parades

 

Who was:

o The Ulster Volunteer Force had been created earlier in 1966

n centered in County Armagh

n And in Belfast

n With the aim of going to war with the IRA

o They blew up some utility installations in the South in 1969

o Hoping this would be blamed on the IRA; thereby adding fuel to the anti-O’Neill campaign

o In 1970 they announced their intent to respond to any PIRA attacks on the RUC, or the British Army with counterattacks

n That would be aimed at the “people hosting the PIRA”

n By 1972 it had about a thousand members and was conducting a very deadly sectarian killing campaign

o The Shankill Butchers (were involved) belonged to this organization

 

What was:

o But they were replaced by the Ulster Defense Regiment (UDR) in 1970

n a locally recruited section of the British Army

n And the Northern Ireland Housing Executive

o they only further angered Protestants and proved too little too late for Catholics

o The region would now be ruled directly by Westminster

n The Northern Ireland Office was created and the cabinet post of Northern Ireland Secretary (RUNS NORTHERN IRELAND)

 

What was & when formed:

The Social Democratic and Labour Party (the SDLP) was created in 1970

• It was the largest nationalist party in Northern Ireland until 2001 (when Sinn Fein over took them in the polls)

 

Original goals & Founder of SDLP:

Founded by Gerry Fitt

• It was established with members from various nationalist and socialist political parties on a non-abstentionist ticket

• Though it announced its dedication to an eventual united Ireland

• It also announced its dedication to socialist principles

• initially planned to represent its constituents at Stormont

 

 

Essays:

 

1) Describe the extent of discrimination that occurred against Catholics in Northern Ireland between 1921 and 1968. Then analyze what explanations and excuses are often given in the face of these facts.

 

According to the Government of Ireland Act of 1920, parliamentary elections were based on a proportional representation system. By 1922 this was abolished by the Unionist dominated government and replaced by a plurality system which gave Protestants a majority at Stormont. Few accusations of gerrymandering within Stormont constituency have occurred. However, local council elections were subject to gerrymandering and discriminatory voter qualifications. Some of these qualifications were home ownership and extension of extra votes to business franchises which disenfranchised Catholics. These qualifications depleted the electorate. Gerrymandering was used through the manipulation of boundary lines to ensure Unionists majority. This was evidenced in council elections. For example, the city of Derry had a 2/3 majority of Catholics, but remained to have a Unionists dominated council. This was accomplished by packing Catholics into one large ward with a slim majority and creating several smaller Protestant dominated wards. This was so wide spread that Unionists controlled 85% of the councils even though it only consisted of 70% of the population. There was also discrimination in corporate housing. This happened because Protestant dominated councils were given sole direction in relation to the housing leading to no new housing in Catholic areas. Catholics were overly represented among the unemployed. There were virtually no Catholics in any skilled job and only about 5% of government jobs. Several explanations of why this discrimination occurred have been offered. They include: flat out denial, Catholic self exclusion, Catholics as “disloyal,” the character of the South is responsible, and the British state is responsible. The argument was that discrimination was not aimed at Catholics or they were lazy about employment. Self exclusion and disloyalty was in regards to security services, government jobs, and politics. However, Catholics often received harassment from their own community for taking these jobs as well as from the Protestant community. In Northern Ireland the government seemed to encourage the exclusion. Sir Basil Brooke, the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, appealed to Loyalist to higher Protestants. As for politics, abstentionism was the reasoning. Nationalists parties abstained from taking their seats most of the time. When they did take their seats it was difficult for them to accomplish anything. The character of the Southern state was also an excuse. It went out of its way to be Catholic, Gaelic, and Free, its economy was unappealing, and it was denied validity from the Northern state. The British are responsible for the character of the Orange state has two arguments: The sectarian practices of Northern Ireland helped Britain keep imperialistic influence in Ireland and Britain left the North to its own devices, refusing to guarantee its existence in the Union.

 

2) Describe the birth and evolution of the SDLP and analyze the differences that existed between it and Sinn Fein, up until the 1990s.

The Social Democratic and Labor Party (SDLP) was created in 1970 and remained the largest party until 2001. The SDLP was founded by Gerry Fitt and formed with members from nationalist and socialist political parties. It announced its dedication to an eventual united Ireland, but also announced dedication to Socialists principles. The party planned to represent its constituents at Stormont hoping to attract both Protestant and Catholic support, taking seats in late 1971. The party argued for a constitutional change with the consent of the North. In 1974, the party was involved in a power sharing executive with Ulster Unionists. This was set up by the British based on the Sunningdale Agreement. This agreement happened after negotiations with a handful of political parties in Northern Ireland. During the negotiations the SDLP voted that there be an All-Ireland Dimension. They wanted a means for the South to be constitutionally involved in the politics of Northern Ireland. Sunningdale included a Council of Ireland to meet this demand which resulted in the withdrawal of Unionist. By the 1980s the SDLP went through a slight greening process. Gerry Fitt left the party claiming that it ceased to be a socialist force. John Hume took over as party leader in 1979. During the 1970s the party became dominated by a Catholic and Nationalist element. The SDLP became an advocate for Joint Authority during the 1980s. They suggested holding a series of discussions that leading to a unified Nationalists position regarding the North called The New Ireland Forum hosted in the South between 1983-4. A report was issued at the end of the discussions recommending three solutions: 1) a confederate independent all Ireland government 2) a federal independent all Ireland government 3) and Ireland government in which Northern Ireland would be subject to joint British/Republic of Ireland rule. None of these were accepted by the British government. After 1985, SDLP ideas would be absorbed into various aspects of the peace process. Up until the 1990s, there have been differences revolving around several issues between the SDLP and Sinn Fein. The SDLP focused on divided communities believing that reconciling the two traditions was most important. Sinn Fein focused on the divided island believing partition must end before progress can be made. The view of Unionists also differed. The SDLP believed that Unionists were British if they say they are. Sinn Fein believed Unionists were Irish with their own traditions. Britain’s role in the conflict and future role was another difference. The SDLP blames Britain for partition and they should stay to help reconcile it. Sinn Fein believes Britain has selfish reasons for remaining and should leave. On the issue of Unionists consent the SDLP believes that making a constitutional change is necessary. Sinn Fein believes that partition and withdrawal should come first. The SDLP is opposed to violence while Sinn Fein believes that violence is acceptable as a means to an end.

 

3) Describe the events surrounding the arrival of the British Army in Northern Ireland, and the birth of the PIRA and its violent campaign. Then analyze why this insurrection seemingly occurred on the back of a once peaceful protest movement.

 

By the 13^th of August the RUC was loosing the battle of the Bogside. They were not able to enter the Bogside and were being pushed back towards the city centre. The British Army was sent in on the 14^th. There orders were to relieve the RUC, but not enter the Bogside. The Army was met with open arms by the Nationalist community, but that relationship soured within six months. It ended because the British Army was just an element in the security arrangements and dependant on the RUC. They also made a series of mistakes. These included: 1) summary arrest and detention techniques 2) the Falls Curfew between July 3^rd-5^th 1970 where areas were locked down and searched 3) and internment during August of 1971. The implementation of internment involved a major sweep of Nationalists areas where suspects were arrested and detained based on bad intelligence. When the British Army arrived in Northern Ireland in 1969, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) was very small. It was not well supported and not very aggressive. The leader, Cathal Goulding, had taken the movement down a Marxist line. He argued that Protestants and Catholics need to unite before a united Ireland could be established and a campaign of violence would be counterproductive. He was against the use of abstentionism with Sinn Fein. When violence broke out between Protestants and Catholics during 1969 the IRA was reluctant to use violence. Its leadership was weary about taking up a defense role; the role it had taken in Northern for many years. Many wanted the IRA to take a defensive role and did not like dropping abstentionism. Some of these people were Sean McStiofain, Ruairí Ó Brádaigh, Joe Cahill, and Billy McKee. Cahill and McKee were local Belfast men who felt that the Belfast IRA was unprepared to defend Catholic areas during the 1969 riots. During the 1970 Sinn Fein annual conference several members walked out and formed another group after the vote to drop abstentionism. This group was led by McStiofain and Ó Brádaigh creating the Provisional IRA and the Provisional Sinn Fein. Those who did not leave became the official IRA. The Provisional’s announced their dedication to the establishment of the Irish Republic as established by the Easter Proclamation of 1916; their intent to end British rule, organize defensive operations, and use abstentionism. McStiofain became the PIRA’s chief of staff and Ó Brádaigh became the President of Sinn Fein. The Provisional’s were the smaller of the groups, but would grow to be larger by 1972. Initially the group led a defensive campaign, but by February 1971 the group started and offensive campaign when it targeted its first British officer. The Officials also involved themselves in a violent campaign. Though they claimed it was defensive they attacked British soldiers. Both would spend a lot of time fighting each other. By early 1972 the Officials called a ceasefire. The Provisional’s grew more popular in response to Catholic anger at the British and Northern Ireland Administration. Events such as internment and Bloody Sunday helped the group gain popularity.

 

Largest Church:

l **Almost half of the Protestants in Northern Ireland belong to the Presbyterian Church (of Ireland)

l This church is a conservative in its leanings

l And is loosely overseen by a central organization of elders

 

Second Largest Church:

l **The next largest Protestant Church is the Church of Ireland

l Usually considered more liberal

l This is an Anglican Church established by the British as the official church of Ireland

l It has an established hierarchy

 

Only 1%:

l **About 1% of NIs Protestants belong to the Free Presbyterian Church

l A very fundamentalist church

l Which broke off from the established Presbyterian Church

l and denounces Catholicism

 

What Was:

l ***The first two have involved themselves in the ecumenical movement

l A movement designed to create greater unity among Christians

l Since 1965 the two have been coordinating their actions:

l to support cross community projects

l and dialogue with the Catholic Church

l And some co-religious projects with the former

Know Didn’t Like:

l the Free Presbyterians have lobbied against such movements

 

Remember:

l **There are over 15 other denominations of Protestant Churches in NI

 

Remember Fastest Growing:

l and Mormons -this is the fastest growing religious group in Northern Ireland

 

What Is:

l The Orange Order

l **Was established in 1795 after the Battle of the Diamond

l A sectarian skirmish between the Catholic Defenders and the Protestant Peep O Day Boys

The group celebrates the victory of King William of Orange over James II in 1690

Its Main Aims Were:

l **It main aims include:

l Maintaining the Protestant Crown

l Defending the Protestant Faith

l Opposing the Roman Catholic Church

Most Important Celebration:

l **The main celebration is conducted on July 12th

 

Significance:

l **the most controversial of these points is at Drumcree in Portadown

§ Where some of the most senior Orange Order members converge on Drumcree Church

§ **Marching down the Garvachy Road irritates Catholics who live along this part of the parade root

l The last parade to be permitted to go down the Garvachy Road was in 1997

§ Ever since there has been a show down between Orangemen and the security forces

 

Who Was:

o In 1963 Terence O’Neill became the 4th Prime Minister of Northern Ireland

 

Remember What He Was Famous For Saying:

n He was famous for saying in 1969:

n "It is frightfully hard to explain to Protestants that if you give Roman Catholics a good job and a good house,...they will refuse to have 18 children...they will live like Protestants in spite of the authoritative nature of their Church."

 

What Was & What Demands:

o By 1967 the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association(NICRA) was formed

n It was prepared to use civil disobedience as well as pressure group activity

n It produced the following demands:

o One man one vote

o The end of gerrymandering

o Equitable housing (by establishing a points system)

o End of the Special Powers Act

o End B-Specials

o Establishment of a local government complaints system

 

Who was & Most Famous Attack:

n The Peoples Democracy Movement- was formed by leftist Queens Unive rsity students who were both Protestant and Catholic

o They did not go along with the halt and planned a march from Belfast to Derry in January 1969

n Mimicking Martin Luther King’s march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama

n Around 40 PDs took part

n They were attacked by groups of Loyalists along the way

o The most famous of these attacks was the one at Burntollet Bridge

n An ambush was set for the marchers as they came off the bridge (armed with sticks and bottles)

n It is alleged that the attackers were aided by off duty B-Specials

o When the marchers finally reached Derry rioting ensued between:

o Supporters of the march who amassed in order to protect them from loyalists

o And the RUC

o The RUC broke into Houses and arrested many Catholics in the Bogside area of Derry

o In response to this, barricades were built by the residents of the Bogside to keep out the RUC

o In April of 1969 a Derry man died as a result of a beating received by a member of the RUC

o Also O’Neill resigned after an embarrassing election result

o In July of 1969 the Derry Citizens Defense Association was created

n Its purpose was to defend the Bogside from the RUC

n And to enact policing in the area

o IRA members were active in this organization, but so were many other nationalist/republican groups

o The group took the stance of being peaceful

n But ready for defense, and maybe even offense, if necessary

o August 12th 1969 mostly Catholic Nationalist protestors clashed with police after a Apprentice Boys March

n The march went along the edge of the Bogside

n The protestors faced off the RUC who protected the march for several hours

n Then the RUC decided to push the protesters back into the Bogside

 

What Was:

o The Battle of the Bogside occurs

n A series of clashes between RUC and Bogside residents

n From August 12th to 15th 1969

n Residents are armed with rocks, sticks, and petrol bombs

n The RUC with batons, small shields, CS Gas

 

Bombay Street Rioting:

o On the night of the 14th rioting broke out between Protestants and Catholics

o A protestant loyalist mob burned all the Catholic homes on Bombay Street

o The rioting lasted until August 17th

o 7 people were killed

o Around 1,000 Catholic families were dispossessed from their homes

o As were about half as many Protestant families

 

What Was:

n And the Falls Curfew (Or Belfast Curfew)- between July 3-5th 1970, during which the area was locked down and searched

 

What Was & When Begin:

o And the introduction of Internment in August of 1971

 

Who Was & Beliefs About What IRA Should Be Doing:

n Its leader, Cathal Goulding, had taken the movement down a Marxist line

o He argued:

n Protestant and Catholic workers needed to unite before a United Ireland could be established

n a campaign of violence would therefore be counterproductive

n against the use of abstentionism within Sinn Fein

o The IRA’s political arm- or political party

o Goulding proposed dropping the policy in reference to the South

 

When Were Provisional’s Born & What Resulted:

o During the 1970 Sinn Fein Ard Fheis (annual conference)

n several members walked out and formed another group, after the meeting voted to drop abstentionism in the South

n The group was led by McStiofan and O’Bradaigh

n Creating the Provisional IRA and Provisional Sinn Fein

n those that did not walk out became the Official IRA (also sometimes referred to as the Stickies)

o The Provisionals (or Provos) announced:

o their dedication to the establishment of the Irish Republic as established by the Easter Proclamation of 1916

o Their intent to end British rule

o And their intent to organize defensive operations/ which would led to offensive ones

o And abstensionsim

 

What Was:

n and Bloody Sunday (January 1972)- when 13 Catholics were shot and killed (36 wounded) by British Soldiers in Derry during a NICRA march

 

Who Is & Connections With Free Presbyterian Church:

o Ian Paisley was the leader of the Protestant Unionist Party which he set up in 1966

n he was also the founder of a church known as the Free Presbyterian Church

 

What Was & When Created:

o The UDA was created in 1971

n Out of a large number of defense organizations that already existed in Belfast

n its stated aims were:

o to defend the loyalists community from Republicans

o And to defend the Union with Britain

o Though it also proposed an independent Ulster its earliest years

o By 1972 the organization had about 35,000 members

o It primary activities involved:

n Self policing and community service

n An attempt at establishing no go areas in reference to Republicans

n a sectarian assassination campaign

o Which targeted mostly ordinary Catholics and some Nationalist Politicians

o Such activity was undertaken under the name of the Ulster Freedom Fighters (UFF)

n And paramilitary parades

 

What Was – Aims & How Many Members:

o The Ulster Volunteer Force had been created earlier in 1966

n centered in County Armagh

n And in Belfast

n With the aim of going to war with the IRA

o They blew up some utility installations in the South in 1969

o Hoping this would be blamed on the IRA; thereby adding fuel to the anti-O’Neill campaign

o In 1970 they announced their intent to respond to any PIRA attacks on the RUC, or the British Army with counterattacks

n That would be aimed at the “people hosting the PIRA”

n By 1972 it had about a thousand members and was conducting a very deadly sectarian killing campaign

o The Shankill Butchers belonged to this organization

 

Who Are:

The Social Democratic and Labour Party (the SDLP) was created in 1970

• It was the largest nationalist party in Northern Ireland until 2001 (when Sinn Fein over took them in the polls)

 

Who Founded & Original Principles:

Founded by Gerry Fitt

• It was established with members from various nationalist and socialist political parties on a non-abstentionist ticket

• Though it announced its dedication to an eventual united Ireland

• It also announced its dedication to socialist principles

• initially planned to represent its constituents at Stormont

• And hoped it could attract both Protestants and Catholics

• It took up its seats in Stormont, until late 1971

 

Remember the SDLP Document & that it included the “Consent” Clause:

• Through a policy document in 1972 called Toward A New Ireland

• in which the party said that new arrangements in Northern Ireland should go forth with “the agreement and consent of the people of Ireland, North and South.”

 

What Was:

In 1974 it was involved in a power sharing executive with Ulster Unionists

• Set up by the British based on the Sunningdale Agreement

• an agreement reached after negotiations between a handful of political parties in Northern Ireland

 

Why Left:

• Gerry Fitt left the party in 1980 claiming it ceased to be a socialist force

 

When Took Over:

• John Hume had taken over as party leader in 1979

 

What Was & What Did It Report:

The  New Ireland Forum was hosted in the South for this purpose between 1983-4 (The SDLP, Fine Gael, Fianna Fail, and the Irish Labour Party attended)

• A report was issued at the end of the discussions which recommended 3 possible solutions:

• 1) a confederate independent all Ireland Government

• 2) a federal independent all Ireland Government

• 3) an all Ireland Government in which Northern Ireland would be subject to joint British/Republic of Ireland rule

 

What is “short war”:

The reason for this had to do with the nature of the Provisional Republican Movement

• Which believed that the IRA could remove the British through a military campaign

• This was thought to be something that would come pretty quickly (sometimes referred as the short war)

• A policy describe by the leader of the PIRA as (Sean McStiofain) as “escalation, escalation, escalation.”

• And conveyed in slogans such as “Victory 72”

 

What is “long War”:

• They also devised and pushed for a new “Long War” strategy:

• In which Sinn Fein was to take an important political propaganda role

• And the PIRA would prepare for a war of attrition

 

When President & What Happened in 1986:

• In 1983 Adams became Sinn Fein President

• And by 1986 the party decided to drop the policy of abstentionism in reference to the Southern Dail

• This was an immensely important symbolic move

 

Who is, how created, when created, and problem (dropping abstentionism):

Republican Sinn Fein (RSF) was created in 1986

• After Sinn Fein voted to drop abstentionism in the South

• A group of mostly southern members walked out under the leadership of Ruairí Ó Brádaigh

• They adopted the same policies initially adopted by the Provisional movement upon its creation in 1970

• British withdrawal from the North within 5 years

 

What Linked to & When Created:

The party is also linked to a republican paramilitary organization known as the Continuity IRA

• it was created at the same time as RSF and for the same reasons

• It considers itself to be the legitimate continuation of the IRA

 

What Was:

The Real IRA was created in 1997 after the PIRA called its second peace process ceasefire

• Formed by dissident PIRA members who were opposed to the above move

• Most of its members came from the rural base of the PIRA (particularly South Armagh)

• It immediately began an armed campaign

• Which included a bombing in Omagh city centre

• Leading to 29 deaths

• 220 people were injured

• It called a ceasefire after this only to resume armed activities again in 2000

The Real IRA is associated with a political wing known as the 32 County Sovereignty Committee

• it is an organization that rejects the Good Friday Agreement

• its chair is Bernadette Sands McKevitt (the sister of Bobby Sands)

 

What Was & When:

• **In February of 1992 Sinn Fein came out with a very significant new policy document

• Which it claimed outlined a “strategy for peace”

• Called Towards a Lasting Peace

• **The document was important because:

• It indicated that the Provisionals might be willing to give up armed struggle under certain conditions, that may fall short of their ultimate goals

• by noting that Sinn Fein was:

• “determined to play a constructive role in building a national democracy in Ireland, either by continuing armed resistance or by an effective unarmed strategy”

 

What Was:

• ***Resulting in the TUAS strategy

• a shift from the Tet-Offensive to a new strategy which included some unarmed phase of struggle

• However, what the new strategy actually was is illusive

 

2 Things It Could Mean:

• TUAS could mean one of two things:

• Tactical Use of Armed struggle-

• the use of phases of peace and violence

• until the right conditions were met

• Or Totally Unarmed Struggle-

• wind down armed struggle despite the political conditions

• Then continue the struggle via wholly political means

 

Remember:

• Its 6 recommendations became known as the Mitchell Principles

• **The Mitchell Principles

• Recommended parallel decommissioning

• As long as the parties committed themselves to exclusively democratic means

• Had ceased engaging in violence (including punishment beatings)

• Agreed by the terms of any agreement reached

• And agreed to total disarmament

 

Bomb:

• These were eventually accepted by all parties

• But the PIRA’s ceasefire broke down in February of 1996 when a huge bomb went off at Canary Warf

• most likely:

• Because of the Forum Elections

• And the Mitchell Principles

 

What Was:

• And the** Ulster Workers Council (UWC) strike which ended the power sharing executive of the Sunningdale Agreement in 1974

– a week long strike organized by Unionists politicians not party to the Sunnigdale Agreement and loyalist paramilitaries

 

What is (Was the Largest Party – Took over by the DUP):

l The main two modern unionist parties are:

– The Ulster Unionist Party (UUP)

– And the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP)

l **The UUP was the largest Unionist party up until 2005, when it was overtaken by the DUP

 

What Is:

l **By 1982 the UUP accepted power sharing by engaging in the Northern Ireland Assembly of 1982-86

– The assembly was set up as a power sharing assembly

– Though it used a process often referred to as rolling devolution

• 70 percent of its members would have to agree to take up power of a policy realm

– and in included no Irish Dimension

– The SDLP refused to work within it

l **The party opposed the 1985 Anglo-Irish Agreement

– Because it gave a consultative role to the South

l **However, by 1995 the party would elect a new leader, David Trimble

– He would lead the party until 2005

– and would come to accept the Irish Dimension

– Via the 1998 Good Friday Agreement

 

What Was, when introduced, & when institutionalized:

n In 1985 the UK and the Republic of Ireland signed the Anglo-Irish Agreement

– The document institutionalized regular IGCs between the South and the UK

 

Given Consultative Role:

– The South’s government was only allowed to consult on these matters, but in important areas, such as:

• Security

• Politics

• Legal matters

 

What Was:

– High profile mistakes, such as Enniskillen and made even some of the PIRA’s own hard core supporters upset

• 1987 Enniskillen Bombing- 11 people died and 67 were injured

• All but one were civilians

• It victims were attending a Remembrance Day celebration (a memorial to those who died in WWI)

 

What Was (Tet Plan):

n 1) The PIRA adopted a new plan designed toward escalation and endgame (the so called Tet Offensive) (adopted between 1987 to 1990-3???)

• Included in this was the arrangement for large shipments of arms

• Which arrived from Libya in two shipments

 

What was & what was the point from both points-of-view:

n By September of 1988 the first Hume Adams Talks were under way (March to September 1988)

– the climate had changed for the talks were instigated by Father Alec Reed

– Who had assured Hume that Sinn Fein were series about debate

n For Adams the point was to expose the inconsistencies of the SDLP

n For Hume the point was to convince Sinn Fein that violence was futile

 

Who Was & What Initiatives:

n In November of 1990 Northern Ireland Secretary Peter Brooke encouraged the PIRA to call a ceasefire

– Promising that “imaginative steps” would result if they did so

– Brooke also assured the PIRA that Britain had “no selfish strategic or economic interest” in Northern Ireland

n Brooke also started two initiatives during which the Anglo-Irish Agreement was suspended

– 1)  political talks which were to include three strands

• Strand one- talks about internal Northern Ireland political arrangements

• Strand two- talks about North-South arrangements

• Strand three- talks about East-West (or intergovernmental) arrangements

 

What Was:

– 2) the Back Channel- secret discussions between British intelligence personnel and leaders of the Provisional Republican movement ( beginning sometime in 1990 and continuing until early 1993)

• They took place under the condition that they could be denied

• What exactly went on is unclear

• The British claim that the Provisional leadership initiated the contacts by admitting that “the war was essentially over”

• The Provisionals claim that the British admitted that “Irish unity was inevitable”

 

Essays:

1) Describe the animosity that built up between Planter and Gael between the 12^th century and the events of 1690, and analyze why this maybe of particular importance in reference to Ulster.

Gaels were native to Ireland and Planters were people of Scottish, English, or Welsh heritage that were planted by the British Crown in Ireland to take land and harvest it. The beginning of the divide between Planter and Gael occurred in the 12^th century when Britain attempted to conquer Ireland. Ulster proved to be the hardest to conquer. In 1609, Scottish and English Protestants were planted in Ulster. This caused resentment because the Gaels were displaced from their land and the Planters were left to fight for themselves. The British promised to remove the Gael but never did. There was also religious hostility. Most Gaels were Catholic and most Planters were Protestant. There was an attempt to force Gaels to attend Protestant services and to abolish Catholic Churches. Through the Penal Laws Catholic, Dissenter, and people who did not belong to the Church of Ireland were discriminated against. The British Crown was careful with these laws at first for fear of alienating rich Catholics who supported British rule. However, in 1641 a Catholic Gael rebellion occurred. This was initially started by the gentry, but became a sectarian fight that lasted for ten years. Ulster was hit worst by the wars. Religious divide became less stark as Planters and Gaels converted. Further aggravation occurred with the ascendancy of James II to the thrown. James was a Catholic. He was removed from the thrown during the Glorious Revolution and replaced by William of Orange, James’ Protestant nephew/son-in-law. James assembled an army supported by Irish Catholics to take back his thrown, but he was defeated by William in the Battle of the Boyne of 1690. Williams’ troops were Ulster Protestants which gave the battle religious significance. Ulster Protestants wanted to secure the Crown for Protestants and defend against another rebellion as happened in 1641. Irish Catholics wanted to return the land back to the Gael and secure an easier life for Catholics. James defeat led to Protestant Ascendancy which was a domination of Anglican land owners, politicians, and professionals in Ireland. This created a though life for Catholics in Ulster.

 

2) Describe the extent of discrimination that occurred against Catholics in Northern Ireland between 1921 and 1968. Then analyze what explanations and excuses are often given in the face of these facts.

 

According to the Government of Ireland Act of 1920, parliamentary elections were based on a proportional representation system. By 1922 this was abolished by the Unionist dominated government and replaced by a plurality system which gave Protestants a majority at Stormont. Few accusations of gerrymandering within Stormont constituency have occurred. However, local council elections were subject to gerrymandering and discriminatory voter qualifications. Some of these qualifications were home ownership and extension of extra votes to business franchises which disenfranchised Catholics. These qualifications depleted the electorate. Gerrymandering was used through the manipulation of boundary lines to ensure Unionists majority. This was evidenced in council elections. For example, the city of Derry had a 2/3 majority of Catholics, but remained to have a Unionists dominated council. This was accomplished by packing Catholics into one large ward with a slim majority and creating several smaller Protestant dominated wards. This was so wide spread that Unionists controlled 85% of the councils even though it only consisted of 70% of the population. There was also discrimination in corporate housing. This happened because Protestant dominated councils were given sole direction in relation to the housing leading to no new housing in Catholic areas. Catholics were overly represented among the unemployed. There were virtually no Catholics in any skilled job and only about 5% of government jobs. Several explanations of why this discrimination occurred have been offered. They include: flat out denial, Catholic self exclusion, Catholics as “disloyal,” the character of the South is responsible, and the British state is responsible. The argument was that discrimination was not aimed at Catholics or they were lazy about employment. Self exclusion and disloyalty was in regards to security services, government jobs, and politics. However, Catholics often received harassment from their own community for taking these jobs as well as from the Protestant community. In Northern Ireland the government seemed to encourage the exclusion. Sir Basil Brooke, the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, appealed to Loyalist to higher Protestants. As for politics, abstentionism was the reasoning. Nationalists parties abstained from taking their seats most of the time. When they did take their seats it was difficult for them to accomplish anything. The character of the Southern state was also an excuse. It went out of its way to be Catholic, Gaelic, and Free, its economy was unappealing, and it was denied validity from the Northern state. The British are responsible for the character of the Orange state has two arguments: The sectarian practices of Northern Ireland helped Britain keep imperialistic influence in Ireland and Britain left the North to its own devices, refusing to guarantee its existence in the Union.

3) Analyze the role of religion in the Northern Ireland conflict by describing the make up and role of the Protestant churches, the Catholic Church, and the Orange institutions.

Over half of the population of Northern Ireland attends church weekly. This is much higher than the rest of Britain and significantly higher than the rest of Europe. Most of the population identifies themselves as either Protestant or Catholic. These labels establish identity in reference to social organizations and politics. However, since the 1960s there has been a secularizing trend especially in urban areas. Almost half of the Protestants in Northern Ireland belong to the Presbyterian Church. The next largest Protestant Church is the Church of Ireland. These two churches have involved themselves in the ecumenical movement. This movement is designed to create greater unity among Christians. Since 1965 they have coordinated their actions to support cross community projects, have dialogue with the Catholic Church, and some co-religious projects. The third main church, the Free Presbyterians, makeup only about 1% of Northern Ireland Protestants and have lobbied against such movements. Because the Protestant churches are not unified their influence over politics in Northern Ireland has often been minimal. The loyal institutions (Orange) play a very important role in Northern Ireland. For most urban working class Protestants these institutions are as close as they get to anything religious. The most important organizations are: the Orange Order and the Apprentice Boys of Derry. The Orange Order was established in 1795 after the Battle of the Diamond. This group celebrates the victory of William of Orange over James II in 1690. Their main aims include: Maintaining the Protestant crown, defending Protestant faith, and opposing the Roman Catholic Church. Their main celebration is conducted on July 12. Parades from all over Northern Ireland converge to twenty central points where political and religious speeches are heard. The most controversial point is at Drumcree. The most senior Order members converge on Drumcree Church. Marching down Garvachy Road irritates Catholics who live along this parade route. This parade route has not been permitted since 1997; Ever since there has been a show down between Orangemen and security forces. The Apprentice Boys of Derry organization was founded in 1814. The organization celebrates the lifting of the Siege of Derry in 1689. It also holds parades throughout the year; the most controversial on August 12. It is known as the Relief of Derry celebration. The marchers span the city walls of Derry to reenact the opening of the gates. From 1970-1994 this march was not permitted. From 1995-2001 the march was a major point of contention between Catholics and Protestants in Derry; this even leading to riot in 1999. Since two prominent businessmen brokered a deal between the two communities there has been no problems. The Catholic Church has membership of 95% of the people in the Republic and 40% in Northern Ireland. In the Republic, up until the 1990s, it enjoyed a hegemonic role. Teachings of the church were reflected in laws and politicians looked to the Church for advice about social questions. This began to change in 1979 when article 44 was dropped from the Constitution. In 1995 a second amendment aimed at lifting the ban on divorce also passed. These changes show the loss of hegemony by the Catholic Church.