Comparative Politics Study Guides

In the text below you will find study guides on Comparative Politics. The study guides included cover Northern Ireland Politics, Comparative Theories, Democratization, Latin America, the Middle East, Mexico, the United Kingdom, and much more. The study guides will help you in any Comparative Politics college courses.

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Northern Ireland Politics Study Guides

Planter and Gael

The roots of today’s politics can be traced to the conflict that emerged between the Planter and the Gael
- Planters- those who settled in Ireland on invitation from the British Crown
  - invited to take the land and harvest it
  - They were English, Scottish or Welsh
- Gaels- the natives of Ireland
Britain invaded and tried to conquer Ireland in the 12th century
But before the 17th century Ireland was only loosely ruled by Britain
- In reality ruled by an unassimilated group of Gaelic chiefs
- By 1603 Britain managed to break the control of most of the chiefs
Gaining control over the province of Ulster proved to be a special case
- Ulster- was composed of 9 counties
  - Antrim, Armagh, Derry, Down, Fermanagh, Tyrone, Cavan, Donegal, and Monaghan
- It was the hardest area to subdue
- In 1609 large numbers of Scottish and English protestants were successfully planted there
Resentment grew between Planter and Gael, especially in Ulster
- The Gaels were displaced from their land
- Planters were often left to fight for themselves
  - In Ulster, the British often promised to remove them, but never did
- Religious hostility was also evident
  - The Gaels were mostly Catholic
  - The Planters were mostly Protestant
  - There was an attempt to force the Catholic Gaels to attend Protestant services and to abolish Catholic Churches

Penal Laws

- - Through the Penal Laws
- A series of laws that discriminated against Catholics and Dissenters (or Protestant Presbyterians)
  - Or anyone that did not belong to the Church of Ireland
- The British Crown was careful with imposing these laws at first
  - Not wanting to alienate those richer Catholics in Ireland who did support British rule

1641 Catholic Rebellion

In 1641 a Catholic Gael rebellion took place
- Initially led by Catholic Gentry
- It degenerated into sectarian fighting
- The fighting went on for 10 years
Ulster was worst hit by the wars
although the Munster Plantation was temporarily destroyed by the rebellion
- - The religious/ethnic divide was less stark
  - Some Planters were Catholic
  - And several Gaels had converted to Protestantism

James II

The conflict between Planter and Gael would be further aggravated by the ascent of James II to the English thrown in 1685
James II was a Catholic
- He was removed from the thrown during the Glorious Revolution
- He was replaced by William of Orange (his Protestant nephew/son in law)

Battle of the Boyne 1690

James gathered up an army in order to try and retake the thrown
- His army was supported by many Irish Catholics
- He was defeated at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 by William of Orange
- A large section of William’s troops were Protestants from Ulster
Though not a truly sectarian battle, it had obvious religious significance
- For many Ulster Protestants
  - it was about securing the Crown as Protestant and defending against another 1641
- For many Irish Catholics
  - it was about returning the land back to the Gael
  - and making life easier for Catholics (they hoped the Stuart Kings would end discriminatory laws)

Protestant Ascendancy

This led to the Protestant Ascendancy
- A term used to refer to the slow domination of Anglicans as landowners, politicians, and professionals in Ireland
- Between 1641 until the late 1700s, the Penal Laws were aggressively applied
  - Catholics were barred from holding office

1703 Popery Act

1703 Popery Act- ordered that Catholics must split up their land amongst their heirs

- The Penal Laws were slowly repealed between 1771 and 1793
  - In 1790 Catholics were given the right to vote

1798 Rebellion

- The slow pace of reform helped make a fleeting alliance between Dissenter Protestants and Catholics for rebellion in 1798
  - Led by Wolfe Tone
  - Usually thought of as the father of Irish Republicanism
  - The rebellion resulted in sectarian fighting
The repeal of the Penal Laws led to sectarian strife between Catholics and Protestants in Ulster
Agrarian gangs appeared
- Such as, the Protestant Peep O Day Boys
- and Catholic Defenders
- These gangs were engaged in constant sectarian fighting
In 1795 the Orange Order was formed
- In opposition to the United Irishmen who were increasingly being joined by Defenders
- It was established as a Protestant fraternal organization

The Act of Union

An Act (1800) that officially merged the Kingdoms of Ireland and England
- Before this time Ireland had its own Parliament
- Since 1792 it was not legally subsumed to the English Parliament
  - Nevertheless, it was notoriously corrupt

Young Ireland Movement

Young Ireland Movement (made up of both Protestants and Catholics)- the Nation
- Established by Charles Gavin Duffy and Thomas Davis in 1842
- Inspired by the Famine and Romantic Nationalism
- Advocated separation

The Young Irelanders lead an abortive rebellion against British rule in 1848
- Later Duffy started a land reform movement through the Tenant League
- it united Protestant and Catholic
- It was a constitutional movement

Irish Republican Brotherhood

James Stephens (a Protestant) was involved in the 1848 rebellion
- Later created the Irish Republican Brotherhood (1858)
- A secret organization dedicated to removing British rule and establishing a Republic
- They became known as the “Fenians”
- Tried a rebellion in 1867
- They organized raids on Canada and a dynamite campaign in England
The connection of Land reform with Irish Nationalist politics would later grow stronger

The Land League

The Land League would be created in 1879- demanding an end to landlordism
Which would lead to the Land War (1800-82)- a period of violence between landlords and land reform activists
- initially a cross community movement
- Later it became exclusively Catholic

National League

Charles Stewart Parnell, the Land League’s leader, fully connected the causes of land reform and Irish nationalism
- Created the National League in 1882- an organization that advocated for land reform and separation
- A political party accompanied it in goals, the Irish Parliamentary Party
  - Republicanism and Nationalism would coexist within one movement for awhile
  - The party was formed by Issac Butt in 1874 (the creator of the Home Rule League) but led by Parnell by 1880
- The cause of land reform was more or less solved through various Land Acts
  - But the IPP went on to organize itself behind a Home Rule Movement

The Home Rule Bills

- 1st HR Bill of 1886- never passed the House of Commons

- 2nd HR Bill 1893- was defeated in the House of Lords

William Gladstone

The first HR Bill was introduced at Westminster by William Gladstone
- Leader of the British Liberal Party and PM of Britain
- He was a reformer in many ways
  - Extended the vote in Britain to every adult male who owned a house
  - Abolished the paying of tithes in Ireland
- He supported the idea of Home Rule for many reasons
  - He supported the idea of self government
  - There was a need to placate Irish Nationalism
  - He need the support of the IPP in Parliament
The Liberal Party needed the IPP in order to form a government
- The 1885 elections had given 85 seats to the IPP

Liberal Unionists

However, a section of Gladstone’s party were opposed to Irish Home Rule
- They argued that granting it would result in eventual complete separation
- And this would lead to the end of the entire union
- This group became known as Liberal Unionists

Lord Asquith

The third HR Bill was introduced by Lord Asquith
- Liberal party leader and PM (since 1906)
- The IPP once again held the balance of power
- Asquith made a deal with the leader of the IPP (John Redmond) to introduce and support a HR bill
- In exchange for Redmond’s support for reducing the power of the House of Lords
The deal was kept and the 1911 Parliament Act was passed
- Giving the House of Commons the right to ignore a House of Lords veto in some circumstances
The third HR bill was introduced in 1912
- It finally passed in 1914 by Royal Assent after being rejected 3 times by the Lords

Home Rule and Ulster Unionism

Ulster Unionists created a formable resistance to Home Rule
- Aided by the lag time between HR bills
- And spurred by the worry of sell out by the Conservatives
- Before the assent of Andrew Bonar Law within the Conservative Party this relationship was slightly tenuous
Southern Protestant Unionists existed and were vehemently opposed to HR
- But they never managed to form mass appeal (Landowners and Merchants)
- The Irish Unionist Party – had been developed earlier with both northerners and southerners included
The Ulster Unionist Council (UUC) was created in 1905
- Which served as a strong organizational force against HR
This organization would grow into a political party

The Ulster Unionist Party

– The Ulster Unionist Party- whose elite members were both southern and Northern but whose mass support came from Ulster

The Solemn League and Covenant

In 1912 they organized the Solemn League and Covenant
- A declaration which rejected HR and promised to “use all means necessary” to reject it

Ulster Volunteers

In 1913 James Craig created the Ulster Volunteers
- 100,000 strong militia recruited from the signatories of the covenant
Asquith was organizing to send troops incase of unrest

The Curragh Incident

- Then the Curragh Incident (Curragh Mutiny) occurred
- 57 out of 70 of the camps officers threatened to resign if told to March on Ulster
- Asquith backed down and announced that the British Army would not be used against Ulster Unionists

The Gaelic League

The Gaelic League- established by Douglas Hyde in 1893
- - The league’s purpose was to encourage the use and appreciation for the Irish Language
  - It took no official political stance

The Gaelic Athletic Association

The Gaelic Athletic Association- was established in 1884
- The purpose of which was to encourage the playing of Gaelic games (such as Hurling and Gaelic Football)
- It was a primarily cultural organization and took no official political stance
- However, until 1971 it banned its members from playing “foreign” (meaning British) sport

Sinn Fein

Sinn Fein- a political party which was founded in 1906 by Arthur Griffith
- it was a pacifist party committed to Irish Independence under a Dual Monarchy
- By actively recruiting GAA and Gaelic League members, Griffith organized a rump grass roots movement
- The party itself was not initially popular
- Griffith promoted a “self help” ideology
- Many of its members and followers were also Irish Volunteers

The Irish Volunteers

The Irish Volunteers- a militia organized in 1913 in support HR
- in direct response to the Ulster Volunteers
- It was created by the IRB
- They also arranged to smuggle guns from Germany
- And managed to raise about 180,000 men
Its original leadership were all IRB members
- The Volunteers were founded in part by Patrick Pearse
- A cultural nationalist, high ranking IRB member, and an eventual leader of the Easter Rising
- He was also a poet (“The Coming Revolution,” and “Ghosts”)
However, Redmond managed to convince them to let him hand pick their leaders

Easter Rising

When the WWI broke out the Irish Volunteers split
- Redmond wanted the group to support the war effort and volunteer to join the Irish Brigade of the British Army
- The majority agreed and went off to fight in the war
About 13,000 decided that national liberation at home was more important and kept the name Irish Volunteers
- Most were IRB members
- they mistakenly became known as “Sinn Fein Volunteers” or “Shinners”
- Their political stance was not popular at the time
The IRB section of the group wanted to conduct a rebellion against the British as soon as possible
- But their leader, Eoin MacNeill did not
- The IRB members went ahead with plans to do so anyway
At the same time another organization, The Irish Citizens Army (ICA) was also planning a rebellion

- an organization that originated as a defense unit in support of trade union activity
- It was led by James Connolly, a socialist who wanted to free Irelands workers
- It had about 200 members
The rebellion was thus planned by the IRB section of the Volunteers in association with the ICA
During Easter week of 1916 the rebellion went ahead in Dublin (1,250 men, and one woman, took part)
- Known as the Easter Rising
- The group managed to seize key locations in the city
  - Such as the General Post Office
  - were Patrick Pearse read a Proclamation establishing a republic
- It lasted 6 days before being suppressed by the British Army
The Easter Rising was initially met with general public hostility
- Many ordinary citizens had been killed during the crossfire ( about 220)
- it had inspired a destructive riot in Dublin’s slums
- And the Proclamation had referred to the Central Powers as their “gallant allies”
This attitude began to change in par with the British response to the Rising
- Over 3,000 people were arrested as suspects
- 1,000 were detained without trail
  - a large percentage of which had nothing to do with the rising
  - But many of whom belonged to Sinn Fein
- 17 were executed (all of which were involved)
By a fluke Sinn Fein was given the credit for the rising
- And began to receive more votes in local elections
In the December 1918 parliamentary elections Sinn Fein received 85% of the Irish Vote

Partition/ The Government of Ireland Act of 1920/Tha Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921

**The Government of Ireland Act of 1920
- Partitioned the island
- It created 2 parliaments under British jurisdiction (26 southern counties under one and 6 counties under the other)
- The six county Northern statelet consisted of a 2/3rd protestant majority
- If it had been nine it would have been 56% protestant and 44 percent Catholic
At the end of the Irish War of Independence
- both the British and the Dublin Parliament attempted to renegotiate the Act
**The Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921- the Treaty gave dominion status to Ireland (creating the Irish Free State)

Essays

1) Describe the animosity that built up between Planter and Gael between the 12^th century and the events of 1690, and analyze why this maybe of particular importance in reference to Ulster.

The Gael’s are natives to the island of Ireland. The Planter’s were people of English, Welsh, or Scottish dissent that were invited by the British Crown to settle in Ireland and take land and harvest it. The beginning of this divide began when Britain tried to conquer Ireland in the 12^th century. However, prior to the 17^th century the island was not entirely ruled by Britain. Ireland was ruled by a group of Gaelic chiefs. By 1603 Britain broke the control of most of those chiefs. Ulster proved to be the hardest area to gain control as the province was comprised of nine counties. In 1609 a large number of Scottish and English Protestants were planted in Ulster. This caused resentment between Planter and Gael, especially in Ulster. This resentment was due to the Gael’s being displaced from their land and the Planter’s being left to fight for themselves. The British promised to remove the Gael’s, but never lived up to that promise. In addition, there was also religious hostility. The Gaels were mostly Catholic and the Planters were mostly Protestant. The hostility grew from an attempt to force Catholic Gaels to attend Protestant services and to abolish Catholic services. Through the penal laws Catholics, dissenters, and anyone who did not belong to the Church of Ireland were discriminated against. The British Crown was careful with imposing these laws at first for fear of alienating richer Catholics who supported British rule. However, in 1641 a Catholic Gael rebellion took place. The rebellion lasted for ten years and was initially led by Catholic gentry, but evolved into sectarian fighting. Ulster was worst hit by the wars. The religious divide became less stark as some Planters became Catholic and some Gaels became Protestants. Even though religious differences would become less bleak, the conflict between Planter and Gael would be further aggravated by the ascent of James II to the English thrown in 1685. James II was a Catholic and was removed from the thrown during the Glorious Revolution. His replacement was William of Orange, James’ Protestant nephew/son-in-law. James assembled his army in an attempt to take back his thrown. His army was supported by many Irish Catholics. James was defeated by William of Orange in this fight known as the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. William’s troops were mostly Protestants from Ulster which gave this battle religious significance. For many Ulster Protestants this battle was about securing the Crown as Protestant and defending against another rebellion as happened in 1641. For many Irish Catholics the battle was about returning the land back to the Gael and making life easier for Catholics. The defeat of James by William led to the Protestant ascendancy which refers to a slow domination of Anglicans as landowners, politicians, and professionals in Ireland and a tough life for Catholics.

2) Describe the problems associated with passing the 3^rd Home Rule Bill and the events surrounding the rise of Ulster Unionism. Then analyze why Britain did not simply face down Unionism.

The 3^rd Home Rule Bill was introduced by Lord Asquith, the liberal party leader and Prime Minister since 1906. Asquith made a deal with the leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party, John Redmond, to introduce and support a Home Rule Bill in exchange for Redmond’s support in reducing the power of the House of Lords. The deal was kept and the 1911 Parliamentary Act was passed. This gave the House of Commons the right to ignore a House of Lords veto in certain circumstances. The 3^rd Home Rule Bill was introduced in 1912. It finally passed in 1914 by Royal Assent after being rejected by the House of Lords three times. However, Ulster Unionists were resistant to Home Rule. This was aided by the lag time between Home Rule Bills and spurred by the worry of sell out by the Conservatives. Southern Protestant Unionists were also against Home Rule, but never gained the support of landowners and merchants. The Ulster Unionists Council was created in 1905 which was a strong organizational force against Home Rule. This organization grew into a political party, The Ulster Unionist Party. The elite members of the party came from both the North and the South but the mass support came from Ulster. The Party had two prominent leaders, Baron Carson and James Craig. Baron Carson decided to organize the anti-Home Rule movement around a partition cause and James Craig organized grass roots support. In 1912 they organized the Solemn League and Covenant. This declared the rejection of Home Rule and would use all means necessary in their rejection. In 1913 Craig formed the Ulster Volunteers which was a militia recruited from the signatories of the covenant and in 1914 Craig and Carson smuggled guns from Germany. Asquith organized troops incase of unrest. Then the Curragh Incident occurred in which 57 out of 70 of the camps officers threatened to resign if they were ordered to march on Ulster. Asquith backed down and announced that the British Army would not be used against Ulster Unionists.

What is:

n **The Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC)- Northern Ireland’s regular policing service

What is:

• **RUC inherited its recruits from the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC)

• This had been the police service in Ireland during British rule

• It had been primarily Catholic (though not in the higher ranks)

• However, by the time of the Anglo-Irish War this force was targeted as anti-nationalist

Difference between:

• **In 1922 the RIC was divided into two forces:

• The Garda for the Free State

• And the RUC- originally 17% percent Catholic

• But it soon fell to 10%

• The Ulster Special Constabulary was an auxiliary force split into 3 sections

• **B Specials- part-time police not stationed away from home

• **The latter two were exclusively protestant recruited primarily from the Ulster Volunteer Force (formally known as the Ulster Volunteers)

Who is: (Know Quote)

• Sir Basil Brooke (or Basil Brookenborough)- PM of Northern Ireland from 1943 to 1963:

• “we would appeal to loyalists…to employ protestant lads and lassies.”

Know Articles:

• The 1937 Constitution – adopted by referendum, and whose drafting was overseen by De Valera

• Article 44- recognizing the “Special Position” of the Catholic Church

• Article 41- banned divorce

• Articles 2 and 3- extended a territorial claim over the north

• 2- defined the national territory to be the entire island

• 3- acknowledged that the laws of the Republic would only be in force in the 26 counties, “pending the reintegration of the national territory”

What was:

• In 1949 the British would pass the Ireland Act of 1949

• Which recognized the existence of the Republic as a sovereign state

• And guarantee that Northern Ireland would stay within the union as long as a majority of its citizens wanted to

Who was: (Know suggested reforms)

o In 1963 Terence O’Neill became the 4th Prime Minister of Northern Ireland

n From the Ulster Unionist Party

n And someone who wanted to reform the Northern Ireland State

o He suggested that:

n council politics should be cleaned up

n Including the housing system

n The franchise should be extended fully to Catholics

n And an ombudsman position should be established

What was:

o By 1967 the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association(NICRA) was formed

n It was prepared to use civil disobedience as well as pressure group activity

n It produced the following demands:

o One man one vote

o The end of gerrymandering

o Equitable housing (by establishing a points system)

o End of the Special Powers Act

o End B-Specials

o Establishment of a local government complaints system

What it did: (Know incident)

o NICRA organized a series of sit ins and marches in order to pressure the Northern Ireland government into adopting its demands

Who are:

n Apprentice Boys of Derry ( a Protestant Fraternal Organization dedicated to celebrating the Siege of Derry)

What was:

n The Peoples Democracy Movement- was formed by leftist Queens University students who were both Protestant and Catholic

o They did not go along with the halt and planned a march from Belfast to Derry in January 1969

n Mimicking Martin Luther King’s march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama

n Around 40 PDs took part

n They were attacked by groups of Loyalists along the way

o The most famous of these attacks was the one at Burntollet Bridge:

n An ambush was set for the marchers as they came off the bridge (armed with sticks and bottles)

n It is alleged that the attackers were aided by off duty B-Specials

o When the marchers finally reached Derry rioting ensued between:

o Supporters of the march who amassed in order to protect them from loyalists

o And the RUC

o The RUC broke into Houses and arrested many Catholics in the Bogside area of Derry

o In response to this, barricades were built by the residents of the Bogside to keep out the RUC

o In April of 1969 a Derry man died as a result of a beating received by a member of the RUC

o Also O’Neill resigned after an embarrassing election result

What was:

o In July of 1969 the Derry Citizens Defense Association was created

n Its purpose was to defend the Bogside from the RUC

n And to enact policing in the area

o IRA members were active in this organization, but so were many other nationalist/republican groups

o The group took the stance of being peaceful

n But ready for defense, and maybe even offense, if necessary

Battle of the Bogside

What was:

o The Battle of the Bogside occurs

n A series of clashes between RUC and Bogside residents

n From August 12th to 15th 1969

n Residents are armed with rocks, sticks, and petrol bombs

n The RUC with batons, small shields, CS Gas

Know about rioting & Burning of Homes on Bombay Street:

o On the night of the 14th rioting broke out between Protestants and Catholics

o A protestant loyalist mob burned all the Catholic homes on Bombay Street

o The rioting lasted until August 17th

o 7 people were killed

o Around 1,000 Catholic families were dispossessed from their homes

o As were about half as many Protestant families

When the British Army came & for what purpose:

o The British Army was sent in on the 14th to avoid any sectarian fights

n Their orders were to relieve the RUC

n But not enter the Bogside

What was:

n And the Falls Curfew (Or Belfast Curfew)- between July 3-5th 1970, during which the area was locked down and searched

What was & when was it introduced:

o And the introduction of Internment in August of 1971

n A major sweep of nationalist areas was done by the Army and RUC

n suspects were arrested and detained based on rather bad intelligence

n Within 2 days:

o around 1,800 Catholics were put into camps

o Along with around 110 Protestants

Who was:

n Its leader (of the Provisional Irish Republican Army), Cathal Goulding, had taken the movement down a Marxist line

What argument about what the IRA & Sinn Fein should do:

o He argued:

n Protestant and Catholic workers needed to unite before a United Ireland could be established

n a campaign of violence would therefore be counterproductive

n against the use of abstentionism within Sinn Fein

o The IRA’s political arm- or political party

o Goulding proposed dropping the policy in reference to the South

Know about the split:

o During the 1970 Sinn Fein Ard Fheis (annual conference)

n several members walked out and formed another group, after the meeting voted to drop abstentionism in the South

n The group was led by McStiofan and O’Bradaigh

n Creating the Provisional IRA and Provisional Sinn Fein

n those that did not walk out became the Official IRA (also sometimes referred to as the Stickies)

o The Provisionals (or Provos) announced:

o their dedication to the establishment of the Irish Republic as established by the Easter Proclamation of 1916

o Their intent to end British rule

o And their intent to organize defensive operations/ which would led to offensive ones

o And abstensionsim

o McStiofain became the Provisional IRA’s chief of staff

n And O’Bradaigh became the President of Sinn Fein

What was:

n and Bloody Sunday (January 1972)- when 13 Catholics were shot and killed (36 wounded) by British Soldiers in Derry during a NICRA march

Know 2 sections of resistance:

o There were 2 main articulated sections of resistance to O’Neill’s reformism:

1. One centering around William Craig

2. And the other around another, previously marginalized Unionist politician, the Reverend Ian Paisley

Who was:

o Ian Paisley was the leader of the Protestant Unionist Party which he set up in 1966

n he was also the founder of a church known as the Free Presbyterian Church

Who was: (Purpose & Aims)

o The UDA was created in 1971

n Out of a large number of defense organizations that already existed in Belfast

n its stated aims were:

o to defend the loyalists community from Republicans

o And to defend the Union with Britain

o Though it also proposed an independent Ulster its earliest years

o By 1972 the organization had about 35,000 members

o It primary activities involved:

n Self policing and community service

n An attempt at establishing no go areas in reference to Republicans

n a sectarian assassination campaign

o Which targeted mostly ordinary Catholics and some Nationalist Politicians

o Such activity was undertaken under the name of the Ulster Freedom Fighters (UFF)

n And paramilitary parades

Who was:

o The Ulster Volunteer Force had been created earlier in 1966

n centered in County Armagh

n And in Belfast

n With the aim of going to war with the IRA

o They blew up some utility installations in the South in 1969

o Hoping this would be blamed on the IRA; thereby adding fuel to the anti-O’Neill campaign

o In 1970 they announced their intent to respond to any PIRA attacks on the RUC, or the British Army with counterattacks

n That would be aimed at the “people hosting the PIRA”

n By 1972 it had about a thousand members and was conducting a very deadly sectarian killing campaign

o The Shankill Butchers (were involved) belonged to this organization

What was:

o But they were replaced by the Ulster Defense Regiment (UDR) in 1970

n a locally recruited section of the British Army

n And the Northern Ireland Housing Executive

o they only further angered Protestants and proved too little too late for Catholics

o The region would now be ruled directly by Westminster

n The Northern Ireland Office was created and the cabinet post of Northern Ireland Secretary (RUNS NORTHERN IRELAND)

What was & when formed:

The Social Democratic and Labour Party (the SDLP) was created in 1970

• It was the largest nationalist party in Northern Ireland until 2001 (when Sinn Fein over took them in the polls)

Original goals & Founder of SDLP:

Founded by Gerry Fitt

• It was established with members from various nationalist and socialist political parties on a non-abstentionist ticket

• Though it announced its dedication to an eventual united Ireland

• It also announced its dedication to socialist principles

• initially planned to represent its constituents at Stormont

1) Describe the extent of discrimination that occurred against Catholics in Northern Ireland between 1921 and 1968. Then analyze what explanations and excuses are often given in the face of these facts.

According to the Government of Ireland Act of 1920, parliamentary elections were based on a proportional representation system. By 1922 this was abolished by the Unionist dominated government and replaced by a plurality system which gave Protestants a majority at Stormont. Few accusations of gerrymandering within Stormont constituency have occurred. However, local council elections were subject to gerrymandering and discriminatory voter qualifications. Some of these qualifications were home ownership and extension of extra votes to business franchises which disenfranchised Catholics. These qualifications depleted the electorate. Gerrymandering was used through the manipulation of boundary lines to ensure Unionists majority. This was evidenced in council elections. For example, the city of Derry had a 2/3 majority of Catholics, but remained to have a Unionists dominated council. This was accomplished by packing Catholics into one large ward with a slim majority and creating several smaller Protestant dominated wards. This was so wide spread that Unionists controlled 85% of the councils even though it only consisted of 70% of the population. There was also discrimination in corporate housing. This happened because Protestant dominated councils were given sole direction in relation to the housing leading to no new housing in Catholic areas. Catholics were overly represented among the unemployed. There were virtually no Catholics in any skilled job and only about 5% of government jobs. Several explanations of why this discrimination occurred have been offered. They include: flat out denial, Catholic self exclusion, Catholics as “disloyal,” the character of the South is responsible, and the British state is responsible. The argument was that discrimination was not aimed at Catholics or they were lazy about employment. Self exclusion and disloyalty was in regards to security services, government jobs, and politics. However, Catholics often received harassment from their own community for taking these jobs as well as from the Protestant community. In Northern Ireland the government seemed to encourage the exclusion. Sir Basil Brooke, the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, appealed to Loyalist to higher Protestants. As for politics, abstentionism was the reasoning. Nationalists parties abstained from taking their seats most of the time. When they did take their seats it was difficult for them to accomplish anything. The character of the Southern state was also an excuse. It went out of its way to be Catholic, Gaelic, and Free, its economy was unappealing, and it was denied validity from the Northern state. The British are responsible for the character of the Orange state has two arguments: The sectarian practices of Northern Ireland helped Britain keep imperialistic influence in Ireland and Britain left the North to its own devices, refusing to guarantee its existence in the Union.

3) Describe the birth and evolution of the SDLP and analyze the differences that existed between it and Sinn Fein, up until the 1990s.

The Social Democratic and Labor Party (SDLP) was created in 1970 and remained the largest party until 2001. The SDLP was founded by Gerry Fitt and formed with members from nationalist and socialist political parties. It announced its dedication to an eventual united Ireland, but also announced dedication to Socialists principles. The party planned to represent its constituents at Stormont hoping to attract both Protestant and Catholic support, taking seats in late 1971. The party argued for a constitutional change with the consent of the North. In 1974, the party was involved in a power sharing executive with Ulster Unionists. This was set up by the British based on the Sunningdale Agreement. This agreement happened after negotiations with a handful of political parties in Northern Ireland. During the negotiations the SDLP voted that there be an All-Ireland Dimension. They wanted a means for the South to be constitutionally involved in the politics of Northern Ireland. Sunningdale included a Council of Ireland to meet this demand which resulted in the withdrawal of Unionist. By the 1980s the SDLP went through a slight greening process. Gerry Fitt left the party claiming that it ceased to be a socialist force. John Hume took over as party leader in 1979. During the 1970s the party became dominated by a Catholic and Nationalist element. The SDLP became an advocate for Joint Authority during the 1980s. They suggested holding a series of discussions that leading to a unified Nationalists position regarding the North called The New Ireland Forum hosted in the South between 1983-4. A report was issued at the end of the discussions recommending three solutions: 1) a confederate independent all Ireland government 2) a federal independent all Ireland government 3) and Ireland government in which Northern Ireland would be subject to joint British/Republic of Ireland rule. None of these were accepted by the British government. After 1985, SDLP ideas would be absorbed into various aspects of the peace process. Up until the 1990s, there have been differences revolving around several issues between the SDLP and Sinn Fein. The SDLP focused on divided communities believing that reconciling the two traditions was most important. Sinn Fein focused on the divided island believing partition must end before progress can be made. The view of Unionists also differed. The SDLP believed that Unionists were British if they say they are. Sinn Fein believed Unionists were Irish with their own traditions. Britain’s role in the conflict and future role was another difference. The SDLP blames Britain for partition and they should stay to help reconcile it. Sinn Fein believes Britain has selfish reasons for remaining and should leave. On the issue of Unionists consent the SDLP believes that making a constitutional change is necessary. Sinn Fein believes that partition and withdrawal should come first. The SDLP is opposed to violence while Sinn Fein believes that violence is acceptable as a means to an end.

Largest Church:

l **Almost half of the Protestants in Northern Ireland belong to the Presbyterian Church (of Ireland)

l This church is a conservative in its leanings

l And is loosely overseen by a central organization of elders

Second Largest Church:

l **The next largest Protestant Church is the Church of Ireland

l Usually considered more liberal

l This is an Anglican Church established by the British as the official church of Ireland

l It has an established hierarchy

Only 1%:

l **About 1% of NIs Protestants belong to the Free Presbyterian Church

l A very fundamentalist church

l Which broke off from the established Presbyterian Church

l and denounces Catholicism

What Was:

l ***The first two have involved themselves in the ecumenical movement

l A movement designed to create greater unity among Christians

l Since 1965 the two have been coordinating their actions:

l to support cross community projects

l and dialogue with the Catholic Church

l And some co-religious projects with the former

Know Didn’t Like:

l the Free Presbyterians have lobbied against such movements

Remember:

l **There are over 15 other denominations of Protestant Churches in NI

Remember Fastest Growing:

l and Mormons -this is the fastest growing religious group in Northern Ireland

What Is:

l The Orange Order

l **Was established in 1795 after the Battle of the Diamond

l A sectarian skirmish between the Catholic Defenders and the Protestant Peep O Day Boys

The group celebrates the victory of King William of Orange over James II in 1690

Its Main Aims Were:

l **It main aims include:

l Maintaining the Protestant Crown

l Defending the Protestant Faith

l Opposing the Roman Catholic Church

Most Important Celebration:

l **The main celebration is conducted on July 12th

Significance:

l **the most controversial of these points is at Drumcree in Portadown

§ Where some of the most senior Orange Order members converge on Drumcree Church

§ **Marching down the Garvachy Road irritates Catholics who live along this part of the parade root

l The last parade to be permitted to go down the Garvachy Road was in 1997

§ Ever since there has been a show down between Orangemen and the security forces

Who Was:

o In 1963 Terence O’Neill became the 4th Prime Minister of Northern Ireland

Remember What He Was Famous For Saying:

n He was famous for saying in 1969:

n "It is frightfully hard to explain to Protestants that if you give Roman Catholics a good job and a good house,...they will refuse to have 18 children...they will live like Protestants in spite of the authoritative nature of their Church."

What Was & What Demands:

o By 1967 the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association(NICRA) was formed

n It was prepared to use civil disobedience as well as pressure group activity

n It produced the following demands:

o One man one vote

o The end of gerrymandering

o Equitable housing (by establishing a points system)

o End of the Special Powers Act

o End B-Specials

o Establishment of a local government complaints system

Who was & Most Famous Attack:

n The Peoples Democracy Movement- was formed by leftist Queens University students who were both Protestant and Catholic

o They did not go along with the halt and planned a march from Belfast to Derry in January 1969

n Mimicking Martin Luther King’s march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama

n Around 40 PDs took part

n They were attacked by groups of Loyalists along the way

o The most famous of these attacks was the one at Burntollet Bridge

n An ambush was set for the marchers as they came off the bridge (armed with sticks and bottles)

n It is alleged that the attackers were aided by off duty B-Specials

o When the marchers finally reached Derry rioting ensued between:

o Supporters of the march who amassed in order to protect them from loyalists

o And the RUC

o The RUC broke into Houses and arrested many Catholics in the Bogside area of Derry

o In response to this, barricades were built by the residents of the Bogside to keep out the RUC

o In April of 1969 a Derry man died as a result of a beating received by a member of the RUC

o Also O’Neill resigned after an embarrassing election result

o In July of 1969 the Derry Citizens Defense Association was created

n Its purpose was to defend the Bogside from the RUC

n And to enact policing in the area

o IRA members were active in this organization, but so were many other nationalist/republican groups

o The group took the stance of being peaceful

n But ready for defense, and maybe even offense, if necessary

o August 12th 1969 mostly Catholic Nationalist protestors clashed with police after a Apprentice Boys March

n The march went along the edge of the Bogside

n The protestors faced off the RUC who protected the march for several hours

n Then the RUC decided to push the protesters back into the Bogside

What Was:

o The Battle of the Bogside occurs

n A series of clashes between RUC and Bogside residents

n From August 12th to 15th 1969

n Residents are armed with rocks, sticks, and petrol bombs

n The RUC with batons, small shields, CS Gas

Bombay Street Rioting:

o On the night of the 14th rioting broke out between Protestants and Catholics

o A protestant loyalist mob burned all the Catholic homes on Bombay Street

o The rioting lasted until August 17th

o 7 people were killed

o Around 1,000 Catholic families were dispossessed from their homes

o As were about half as many Protestant families

What Was:

n And the Falls Curfew (Or Belfast Curfew)- between July 3-5th 1970, during which the area was locked down and searched

What Was & When Begin:

o And the introduction of Internment in August of 1971

Who Was & Beliefs About What IRA Should Be Doing:

n Its leader, Cathal Goulding, had taken the movement down a Marxist line

o He argued:

n Protestant and Catholic workers needed to unite before a United Ireland could be established

n a campaign of violence would therefore be counterproductive

n against the use of abstentionism within Sinn Fein

o The IRA’s political arm- or political party

o Goulding proposed dropping the policy in reference to the South

When Were Provisional’s Born & What Resulted:

o During the 1970 Sinn Fein Ard Fheis (annual conference)

n several members walked out and formed another group, after the meeting voted to drop abstentionism in the South

n The group was led by McStiofan and O’Bradaigh

n Creating the Provisional IRA and Provisional Sinn Fein

n those that did not walk out became the Official IRA (also sometimes referred to as the Stickies)

o The Provisionals (or Provos) announced:

o their dedication to the establishment of the Irish Republic as established by the Easter Proclamation of 1916

o Their intent to end British rule

o And their intent to organize defensive operations/ which would led to offensive ones

o And abstensionsim

What Was:

n and Bloody Sunday (January 1972)- when 13 Catholics were shot and killed (36 wounded) by British Soldiers in Derry during a NICRA march

Who Is & Connections With Free Presbyterian Church:

o Ian Paisley was the leader of the Protestant Unionist Party which he set up in 1966

n he was also the founder of a church known as the Free Presbyterian Church

What Was & When Created:

o The UDA was created in 1971

n Out of a large number of defense organizations that already existed in Belfast

n its stated aims were:

o to defend the loyalists community from Republicans

o And to defend the Union with Britain

o Though it also proposed an independent Ulster its earliest years

o By 1972 the organization had about 35,000 members

o It primary activities involved:

n Self policing and community service

n An attempt at establishing no go areas in reference to Republicans

n a sectarian assassination campaign

o Which targeted mostly ordinary Catholics and some Nationalist Politicians

o Such activity was undertaken under the name of the Ulster Freedom Fighters (UFF)

n And paramilitary parades

What Was – Aims & How Many Members:

o The Ulster Volunteer Force had been created earlier in 1966

n centered in County Armagh

n And in Belfast

n With the aim of going to war with the IRA

o They blew up some utility installations in the South in 1969

o Hoping this would be blamed on the IRA; thereby adding fuel to the anti-O’Neill campaign

o In 1970 they announced their intent to respond to any PIRA attacks on the RUC, or the British Army with counterattacks

n That would be aimed at the “people hosting the PIRA”

n By 1972 it had about a thousand members and was conducting a very deadly sectarian killing campaign

o The Shankill Butchers belonged to this organization

Who Are:

The Social Democratic and Labour Party (the SDLP) was created in 1970

• It was the largest nationalist party in Northern Ireland until 2001 (when Sinn Fein over took them in the polls)

Who Founded & Original Principles:

Founded by Gerry Fitt

• It was established with members from various nationalist and socialist political parties on a non-abstentionist ticket

• Though it announced its dedication to an eventual united Ireland

• It also announced its dedication to socialist principles

• initially planned to represent its constituents at Stormont

• And hoped it could attract both Protestants and Catholics

• It took up its seats in Stormont, until late 1971

Remember the SDLP Document & that it included the “Consent” Clause:

• Through a policy document in 1972 called Toward A New Ireland

• in which the party said that new arrangements in Northern Ireland should go forth with “the agreement and consent of the people of Ireland, North and South.”

What Was:

In 1974 it was involved in a power sharing executive with Ulster Unionists

• Set up by the British based on the Sunningdale Agreement

• an agreement reached after negotiations between a handful of political parties in Northern Ireland

Why Left:

• Gerry Fitt left the party in 1980 claiming it ceased to be a socialist force

When Took Over:

• John Hume had taken over as party leader in 1979

What Was & What Did It Report:

The New Ireland Forum was hosted in the South for this purpose between 1983-4 (The SDLP, Fine Gael, Fianna Fail, and the Irish Labour Party attended)

• A report was issued at the end of the discussions which recommended 3 possible solutions:

• 1) a confederate independent all Ireland Government

• 2) a federal independent all Ireland Government

• 3) an all Ireland Government in which Northern Ireland would be subject to joint British/Republic of Ireland rule

What is “short war”:

The reason for this had to do with the nature of the Provisional Republican Movement

• Which believed that the IRA could remove the British through a military campaign

• This was thought to be something that would come pretty quickly (sometimes referred as the short war)

• A policy describe by the leader of the PIRA as (Sean McStiofain) as “escalation, escalation, escalation.”

• And conveyed in slogans such as “Victory 72”

What is “long War”:

• They also devised and pushed for a new “Long War” strategy:

• In which Sinn Fein was to take an important political propaganda role

• And the PIRA would prepare for a war of attrition

When President & What Happened in 1986:

• In 1983 Adams became Sinn Fein President

• And by 1986 the party decided to drop the policy of abstentionism in reference to the Southern Dail

• This was an immensely important symbolic move

Who is, how created, when created, and problem (dropping abstentionism):

Republican Sinn Fein (RSF) was created in 1986

• After Sinn Fein voted to drop abstentionism in the South

• A group of mostly southern members walked out under the leadership of Ruairí Ó Brádaigh

• They adopted the same policies initially adopted by the Provisional movement upon its creation in 1970

• British withdrawal from the North within 5 years

What Linked to & When Created:

The party is also linked to a republican paramilitary organization known as the Continuity IRA

• it was created at the same time as RSF and for the same reasons

• It considers itself to be the legitimate continuation of the IRA

What Was:

The Real IRA was created in 1997 after the PIRA called its second peace process ceasefire

• Formed by dissident PIRA members who were opposed to the above move

• Most of its members came from the rural base of the PIRA (particularly South Armagh)

• It immediately began an armed campaign

• Which included a bombing in Omagh city centre

• Leading to 29 deaths

• 220 people were injured

• It called a ceasefire after this only to resume armed activities again in 2000

The Real IRA is associated with a political wing known as the 32 County Sovereignty Committee

• it is an organization that rejects the Good Friday Agreement

• its chair is Bernadette Sands McKevitt (the sister of Bobby Sands)

What Was & When:

• **In February of 1992 Sinn Fein came out with a very significant new policy document

• Which it claimed outlined a “strategy for peace”

• Called Towards a Lasting Peace

• **The document was important because:

• It indicated that the Provisionals might be willing to give up armed struggle under certain conditions, that may fall short of their ultimate goals

• by noting that Sinn Fein was:

• “determined to play a constructive role in building a national democracy in Ireland, either by continuing armed resistance or by an effective unarmed strategy”

What Was:

• ***Resulting in the TUAS strategy

• a shift from the Tet-Offensive to a new strategy which included some unarmed phase of struggle

• However, what the new strategy actually was is illusive

2 Things It Could Mean:

• TUAS could mean one of two things:

• Tactical Use of Armed struggle-

• the use of phases of peace and violence

• until the right conditions were met

• Or Totally Unarmed Struggle-

• wind down armed struggle despite the political conditions

• Then continue the struggle via wholly political means

Remember:

• Its 6 recommendations became known as the Mitchell Principles

• **The Mitchell Principles

• Recommended parallel decommissioning

• As long as the parties committed themselves to exclusively democratic means

• Had ceased engaging in violence (including punishment beatings)

• Agreed by the terms of any agreement reached

• And agreed to total disarmament

Bomb:

• These were eventually accepted by all parties

• But the PIRA’s ceasefire broke down in February of 1996 when a huge bomb went off at Canary Warf

• most likely:

• Because of the Forum Elections

• And the Mitchell Principles

What Was:

• And the** Ulster Workers Council (UWC) strike which ended the power sharing executive of the Sunningdale Agreement in 1974

– a week long strike organized by Unionists politicians not party to the Sunnigdale Agreement and loyalist paramilitaries

What is (Was the Largest Party – Took over by the DUP):

l The main two modern unionist parties are:

– The Ulster Unionist Party (UUP)

– And the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP)

l **The UUP was the largest Unionist party up until 2005, when it was overtaken by the DUP

What Is:

l **By 1982 the UUP accepted power sharing by engaging in the Northern Ireland Assembly of 1982-86

– The assembly was set up as a power sharing assembly

– Though it used a process often referred to as rolling devolution

• 70 percent of its members would have to agree to take up power of a policy realm

– and in included no Irish Dimension

– The SDLP refused to work within it

l **The party opposed the 1985 Anglo-Irish Agreement

– Because it gave a consultative role to the South

l **However, by 1995 the party would elect a new leader, David Trimble

– He would lead the party until 2005

– and would come to accept the Irish Dimension

– Via the 1998 Good Friday Agreement

What Was, when introduced, & when institutionalized:

n In 1985 the UK and the Republic of Ireland signed the Anglo-Irish Agreement

– The document institutionalized regular IGCs between the South and the UK

Given Consultative Role:

– The South’s government was only allowed to consult on these matters, but in important areas, such as:

• Security

• Politics

• Legal matters

What Was:

– High profile mistakes, such as Enniskillen and made even some of the PIRA’s own hard core supporters upset

• 1987 Enniskillen Bombing- 11 people died and 67 were injured

• All but one were civilians

• It victims were attending a Remembrance Day celebration (a memorial to those who died in WWI)

What Was (Tet Plan):

n 1) The PIRA adopted a new plan designed toward escalation and endgame (the so called Tet Offensive) (adopted between 1987 to 1990-3???)

• Included in this was the arrangement for large shipments of arms

• Which arrived from Libya in two shipments

What was & what was the point from both points-of-view:

n By September of 1988 the first Hume Adams Talks were under way (March to September 1988)

– the climate had changed for the talks were instigated by Father Alec Reed

– Who had assured Hume that Sinn Fein were series about debate

n For Adams the point was to expose the inconsistencies of the SDLP

n For Hume the point was to convince Sinn Fein that violence was futile

Who Was & What Initiatives:

n In November of 1990 Northern Ireland Secretary Peter Brooke encouraged the PIRA to call a ceasefire

– Promising that “imaginative steps” would result if they did so

– Brooke also assured the PIRA that Britain had “no selfish strategic or economic interest” in Northern Ireland

n Brooke also started two initiatives during which the Anglo-Irish Agreement was suspended

– 1) political talks which were to include three strands

• Strand one- talks about internal Northern Ireland political arrangements

• Strand two- talks about North-South arrangements

• Strand three- talks about East-West (or intergovernmental) arrangements

What Was:

– 2) the Back Channel- secret discussions between British intelligence personnel and leaders of the Provisional Republican movement ( beginning sometime in 1990 and continuing until early 1993)

• They took place under the condition that they could be denied

• What exactly went on is unclear

• The British claim that the Provisional leadership initiated the contacts by admitting that “the war was essentially over”

• The Provisionals claim that the British admitted that “Irish unity was inevitable”

1) Describe the events surrounding the arrival of the British Army in Northern Ireland, and the birth of the PIRA and its violent campaign. Then analyze why this insurrection seemingly occurred on the back of a once peaceful protest movement.

By the 13^th of August the RUC was loosing the battle of the Bogside. They were not able to enter the Bogside and were being pushed back towards the city centre. The British Army was sent in on the 14^th. There orders were to relieve the RUC, but not enter the Bogside. The Army was met with open arms by the Nationalist community, but that relationship soured within six months. It ended because the British Army was just an element in the security arrangements and dependant on the RUC. They also made a series of mistakes. These included: 1) summary arrest and detention techniques 2) the Falls Curfew between July 3^rd-5^th 1970 where areas were locked down and searched 3) and internment during August of 1971. The implementation of internment involved a major sweep of Nationalists areas where suspects were arrested and detained based on bad intelligence. When the British Army arrived in Northern Ireland in 1969, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) was very small. It was not well supported and not very aggressive. The leader, Cathal Goulding, had taken the movement down a Marxist line. He argued that Protestants and Catholics need to unite before a united Ireland could be established and a campaign of violence would be counterproductive. He was against the use of abstentionism with Sinn Fein. When violence broke out between Protestants and Catholics during 1969 the IRA was reluctant to use violence. Its leadership was weary about taking up a defense role; the role it had taken in Northern for many years. Many wanted the IRA to take a defensive role and did not like dropping abstentionism. Some of these people were Sean McStiofain, Ruairí Ó Brádaigh, Joe Cahill, and Billy McKee. Cahill and McKee were local Belfast men who felt that the Belfast IRA was unprepared to defend Catholic areas during the 1969 riots. During the 1970 Sinn Fein annual conference several members walked out and formed another group after the vote to drop abstentionism. This group was led by McStiofain and Ó Brádaigh creating the Provisional IRA and the Provisional Sinn Fein. Those who did not leave became the official IRA. The Provisional’s announced their dedication to the establishment of the Irish Republic as established by the Easter Proclamation of 1916; their intent to end British rule, organize defensive operations, and use abstentionism. McStiofain became the PIRA’s chief of staff and Ó Brádaigh became the President of Sinn Fein. The Provisional’s were the smaller of the groups, but would grow to be larger by 1972. Initially the group led a defensive campaign, but by February 1971 the group started and offensive campaign when it targeted its first British officer. The Officials also involved themselves in a violent campaign. Though they claimed it was defensive they attacked British soldiers. Both would spend a lot of time fighting each other. By early 1972 the Officials called a ceasefire. The Provisional’s grew more popular in response to Catholic anger at the British and Northern Ireland Administration. Events such as internment and Bloody Sunday helped the group gain popularity.

2) Describe the animosity that built up between Planter and Gael between the 12^th century and the events of 1690, and analyze why this maybe of particular importance in reference to Ulster.

Gaels were native to Ireland and Planters were people of Scottish, English, or Welsh heritage that were planted by the British Crown in Ireland to take land and harvest it. The beginning of the divide between Planter and Gael occurred in the 12^th century when Britain attempted to conquer Ireland. Ulster proved to be the hardest to conquer. In 1609, Scottish and English Protestants were planted in Ulster. This caused resentment because the Gaels were displaced from their land and the Planters were left to fight for themselves. The British promised to remove the Gael but never did. There was also religious hostility. Most Gaels were Catholic and most Planters were Protestant. There was an attempt to force Gaels to attend Protestant services and to abolish Catholic Churches. Through the Penal Laws Catholic, Dissenter, and people who did not belong to the Church of Ireland were discriminated against. The British Crown was careful with these laws at first for fear of alienating rich Catholics who supported British rule. However, in 1641 a Catholic Gael rebellion occurred. This was initially started by the gentry, but became a sectarian fight that lasted for ten years. Ulster was hit worst by the wars. Religious divide became less stark as Planters and Gaels converted. Further aggravation occurred with the ascendancy of James II to the thrown. James was a Catholic. He was removed from the thrown during the Glorious Revolution and replaced by William of Orange, James’ Protestant nephew/son-in-law. James assembled an army supported by Irish Catholics to take back his thrown, but he was defeated by William in the Battle of the Boyne of 1690. Williams’ troops were Ulster Protestants which gave the battle religious significance. Ulster Protestants wanted to secure the Crown for Protestants and defend against another rebellion as happened in 1641. Irish Catholics wanted to return the land back to the Gael and secure an easier life for Catholics. James defeat led to Protestant Ascendancy which was a domination of Anglican land owners, politicians, and professionals in Ireland. This created a though life for Catholics in Ulster.

Outline:

2) Describe the animosity that built up between Planter and Gael between the 12^th century and the events of 1690, and analyze why this maybe of particular importance in reference to Ulster.

- Gael/Planter definition

- Beginning divide à Britain conquer 12^th century

- Ulster hardest/9 counties

- 1609 Scottish/English Protestants planted in Ulster

- Resentment between Planter/Gael in Ulster

- Gael’s displaced from land & Planter left to fight for themselves

- British promised to remove Gael, but never did

- Religious hostility

- Gael = Catholic

- Planter = Protestant

- Attempt to force Catholic Gael’s to attend Protestant service/abolish Catholic Churches

- Penal Laws à Catholic, Dissenter, did not belong to Church of Ireland à discrimination

- British Crown à careful at first à not alienate rich Catholics who support

- 1641 Catholic Gael Rebellion à initially gentry, became sectarian, lasted 10 years

- Ulster hit worst by wars

- Religious divide less stark à Gael and Planter conversions

- Further aggravation à James II in 1685

- James II = Catholic à removed during Glorious Revolution

- Replaced by William of Orange à Protestant nephew/son-in-law

- James assembled army to regain thrown à supported by Irish Catholics

- James defeated by William in Battle of Boyne 1690

- William’s troops à Protestant from Ulster à religious significance

- Ulster Protestants à secure Crown as Protestant & defend against another 1641

- Irish Catholics à land back to Gael & life easier for Catholics

- James’ defeat led to Protestant Ascendancy

- Dominance of Anglican landowners, politicians, and professionals

- Tough life for Catholics in Ulster

3) Describe the extent of discrimination that occurred against Catholics in Northern Ireland between 1921 and 1968. Then analyze what explanations and excuses are often given in the face of these facts.

Outline:

The extent of the discrimination falls under the following categories:

Electoral:

Government of Ireland Act of 1920 giving a proportional representation system, then abolished in 1922 by a Unionist dominated government giving a Protestant majority in Stormont.
Gerrymandering – Used in local council elections to manipulation of boundary lines to ensure Unionist majority.
1. Ex. Derry - For example, the city of Derry had a 2/3 majority of Catholics, but remained to have a Unionists dominated council. This was accomplished by packing Catholics into one large ward with a slim majority and creating several smaller Protestant dominated wards. This was so wide spread that Unionists controlled 85% of the councils even though it only consisted of 70% of the population.
Voter qualifications - Some of these qualifications were home ownership and extension of extra votes to business.

Housing:

n Corporate Housing - This happened because Protestant dominated councils were given sole direction in relation to the housing leading to no new housing in Catholic areas.

Employment:

n Catholics were overly represented among the unemployed. There were virtually no Catholics in any skilled job and only about 5% of government jobs.

There have been several explanations/excuses given:

Flat out denial:

n The argument was that discrimination was not aimed at Catholics or they were lazy about employment.

Catholic self exclusion & Catholics as “disloyal”:

Self exclusion and disloyalty was in regards to security services, government jobs, and politics.

n However, Catholics often received harassment from their own community for taking these jobs as well as from the Protestant community.

n In Northern Ireland the government seemed to encourage the exclusion. Sir Basil Brooke, the Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, appealed to Loyalist to hire Protestants.

n As for politics, abstentionism was the reasoning. Nationalists parties abstained from taking their seats most of the time. When they did take their seats it was difficult for them to accomplish anything.

The character of the South:

n The South went out of its way to be Catholic, Gaelic, and Free, its economy was unappealing, and it was denied validity from the Northern state.

The British state is responsible:

n The British are responsible for the character of the Orange state has two arguments:

1. The sectarian practices of Northern Ireland helped Britain keep imperialistic influence in Ireland.

2. Britain left the North to its own devices, refusing to guarantee its existence in the Union.

4) Analyze the role of religion in the Northern Ireland conflict by describing the make up and role of the Protestant churches, the Catholic Church, and the Orange institutions.

Over half of the population of Northern Ireland attends church weekly. This is much higher than the rest of Britain and significantly higher than the rest of Europe. Most of the population identifies themselves as either Protestant or Catholic. These labels establish identity in reference to social organizations and politics. However, since the 1960s there has been a secularizing trend especially in urban areas. Almost half of the Protestants in Northern Ireland belong to the Presbyterian Church. The next largest Protestant Church is the Church of Ireland. These two churches have involved themselves in the ecumenical movement. This movement is designed to create greater unity among Christians. Since 1965 they have coordinated their actions to support cross community projects, have dialogue with the Catholic Church, and some co-religious projects. The third main church, the Free Presbyterians, makeup only about 1% of Northern Ireland Protestants and have lobbied against such movements. Because the Protestant churches are not unified their influence over politics in Northern Ireland has often been minimal. The loyal institutions (Orange) play a very important role in Northern Ireland. For most urban working class Protestants these institutions are as close as they get to anything religious. The most important organizations are: the Orange Order and the Apprentice Boys of Derry. The Orange Order was established in 1795 after the Battle of the Diamond. This group celebrates the victory of William of Orange over James II in 1690. Their main aims include: Maintaining the Protestant crown, defending Protestant faith, and opposing the Roman Catholic Church. Their main celebration is conducted on July 12. Parades from all over Northern Ireland converge to twenty central points where political and religious speeches are heard. The most controversial point is at Drumcree. The most senior Order members converge on Drumcree Church. Marching down Garvachy Road irritates Catholics who live along this parade route. This parade route has not been permitted since 1997; Ever since there has been a show down between Orangemen and security forces. The Apprentice Boys of Derry organization was founded in 1814. The organization celebrates the lifting of the Siege of Derry in 1689. It also holds parades throughout the year; the most controversial on August 12. It is known as the Relief of Derry celebration. The marchers span the city walls of Derry to reenact the opening of the gates. From 1970-1994 this march was not permitted. From 1995-2001 the march was a major point of contention between Catholics and Protestants in Derry; this even leading to riot in 1999. Since two prominent businessmen brokered a deal between the two communities there has been no problems. The Catholic Church has membership of 95% of the people in the Republic and 40% in Northern Ireland. In the Republic, up until the 1990s, it enjoyed a hegemonic role. Teachings of the church were reflected in laws and politicians looked to the Church for advice about social questions. This began to change in 1979 when article 44 was dropped from the Constitution. In 1995 a second amendment aimed at lifting the ban on divorce also passed. These changes show the loss of hegemony by the Catholic Church.

Outline:

4) Analyze the role of religion in the Northern Ireland conflict by describing the make up and role of the Protestant churches, the Catholic Church, and the Orange institutions.

Overview:

- Over half of the population of Northern Ireland attends church weekly.

- This is much higher than the rest of Britain and significantly higher than the rest of Europe.

- Most of the population identifies themselves as either Protestant or Catholic.

- These labels establish identity in reference to social organizations and politics.

Protestant:

- Almost half of the Protestants in Northern Ireland belong to the Presbyterian Church.

- The next largest Protestant Church is the Church of Ireland.

- These two churches have involved themselves in the ecumenical movement.

- This movement is designed to create greater unity among Christians.

- Since 1965 they have coordinated their actions to support cross community projects, have dialogue with the Catholic Church, and some co-religious projects.

- The third main church, the Free Presbyterians, makeup only about 1% of Northern Ireland Protestants and have lobbied against such movements.

- Because the Protestant churches are not unified their influence over politics in Northern Ireland has often been minimal.

Orange Institutions:

- The loyal institutions (Orange) play a very important role in Northern Ireland.

- For most urban working class Protestants these institutions are as close as they get to anything religious.

- The most important organizations are: the Orange Order and the Apprentice Boys of Derry.

- The Orange Order was established in 1795 after the Battle of the Diamond.

- This group celebrates the victory of William of Orange over James II in 1690.

- Their main aims include: Maintaining the Protestant crown, defending Protestant faith, and opposing the Roman Catholic Church.

- Their main celebration is conducted on July 12.

- Parades from all over Northern Ireland converge to twenty central points where political and religious speeches are heard.

- The most controversial point is at Drumcree.

- The most senior Order members converge on Drumcree Church. Marching down Garvachy Road irritates Catholics who live along this parade route.

- The Apprentice Boys of Derry organization was founded in 1814.

- The organization celebrates the lifting of the Siege of Derry in 1689.

- It also holds parades throughout the year; the most controversial on August 12.

- It is known as the Relief of Derry celebration.

- The marchers span the city walls of Derry to reenact the opening of the gates.

- From 1970-1994 this march was not permitted.

- From 1995-2001 the march was a major point of contention between Catholics and Protestants in Derry; this even leading to riot in 1999.

- Since two prominent businessmen brokered a deal between the two communities there has been no problems.

Catholic:

- The Catholic Church has membership of 95% of the people in the Republic and 40% in Northern Ireland.

- In the Republic, up until the 1990s, it enjoyed a hegemonic role.

- Teachings of the church were reflected in laws and politicians looked to the Church for advice about social questions.

- This began to change in 1979 when article 44 was dropped from the Constitution.

- In 1995 a second amendment aimed at lifting the ban on divorce also passed.

- These changes show the loss of hegemony by the Catholic Church.

Comparative Government and Politics Study Guide

Beginning Concepts:

Today, what are some common topics of research in comparative politics?

1) What are the effects of culture and values in politics?

Max Weber – effects of culture and value on economic structure.

- Influence of culture –

What is the relationship between culture and economics?

Do economies flourish in an area of high cultural values?

2) Democratization – (Not a full democracy) emergence of a classically liberal democracy à limited government and democracy (ex. Spain, Portugal, Greece). Authoritarian rule is on the wane à trend towards democracy around the world.

3) Interest groups – How are they organized around the world?

U.K. à U.K. was the first modern democracy (unwritten constitution; clearly defined private property rights) and modern market economy (capitalism) in the world.

Mexico à Had the longest one party rule (PRI – “Partido Revolucionario Institucional” 1929-2000) in history.

Forms of authoritarian government:

- Ruling Monarchs

- Personal rule

- Dominant parties

- Rule by religious leaders

- Military rule

Civic Culture Concept:

Adapted to the analysis of cultural properties assumed to be associated with democratic stability.

Introduction:

1) Why should we study comparative politics?

- Comparison – facilitate the development of knowledge. A basic of human understanding.

- Policies that work in the United States from the study of policies that works abroad.

- Test theoretical claims. Cause and effect à Presence (or lack of presence) of certain causes result in certain outcomes.

- To find out about countries we know least about.

- The generalizations that sometimes occur have potential for prediction.

- It improves our classification of politics.

2) Basic terms and concepts:

- State – A state is many institutions that have the power to enforce laws over people and have sovereignty over a geographical area. States claim that they have a monopoly on the legitimate use of force. Examples of state institutions that exist to provide public goods or public control are the military, the justice system, the education system, health services, financial system, the police, etc. Do not confuse states with “sub-national governments” like Nevada.

- Political Regime (Hoe political scientists define democracy): Are connected to states but may undergo changes without changes to the state. Political regimes range on the continuum from authoritarian to democratic based on how leadership is selected, how power is exercised, how the rule of law is implemented, and if certain rights and liberties exist.

How leadership is selected: On the authoritarian/democratic continuum a competitive process tends to lead more towards the democratic side of the continuum. The standard benchmark for a competitive process is whether free and fair elections are held. Free meaning that the voters do not feel coerced to vote for a particular candidate and fair meaning are the rules governing the emergence of a candidate fair. However, if the process of leadership selection is not competitive (selected through force) this tends to be further towards the authoritarian side of the continuum. Other than being selected through force, if a few people within a ruling party choose a successor this would also bend towards the authoritarian side of the continuum.

How power is exercised: Centralized power tends to be on the authoritarianism side (ex. Dictatorship). When power is dispersed (spread out) this is an indicator towards democracy. Examples of dispersed power would be having legislative/judicial or national/sub-national governments. This way the national government does not get to call all of the shots and a certain amount of power is retained at lower levels of government.

Rule of Law: When some authorities are above the law this weighs heavier on the authoritarian side. Corruption is common and widespread. Leading towards the democratic side is associated with those in power being subject to the rule of law.

Rights and Liberties: Democratic side – rights protecting people against those in authority. Common rights include freedom to assemble, freedom of association, freedom of the press and freedom of speech. These freedoms are important for accountability of leaders, for the voters to be informed about their leaders, and for the voter’s ability for dissent. Authoritarian side – People have no rights on how power is exercised and none of the freedoms mentioned above.

- Nation – Group that shares a common heritage (may be real or fiction), language, community, and culture. An example would be a person stating that they are an American but also a Texan. This statement lends notion to the concept of national identity (or a master identity) because they are a member of the nation before anything else (first American, then a Texan). Do not make the assumption that nations and states go together. The Kurds would be an example of a “stateless” nation.

- How to measure Economic Development – Economic development is measured by literacy rates, life expectancy, the standard of living, the quality of life, and the gross national product per capita (Wealth divided by population equals GNP per capita).

The theory of political culture (cultural theories) – Cultural theories of economic development and democratization:

1) Culture overview:

- Culture – systems of values. Values define social roles (“right & wrong). Non-connecting values = disintegration and connecting values = integration. “Cognitive Map” – your roles in society are well understood according to your orientation. U.S. culture is based on meritocracy (American Dream) and voluntarism (if you work hard there are no limits to your social mobility).

- Effects of Religion:

Religion – acquisition of values (family).

Max Weber – Had a critical dialogue with Marxism. Weber believed values are in correlation with economic nature.

Karl Marx – Scientific laws governing human development. Marx believed economic conditions can shape values.

- Weber’s theories:

Effects of Protestantism:

1) Economic Development – Calvinist Protestants believed the purpose to life is to get to heaven. They believed in predestination elect. This is where all individuals are born ignorant of whether they are elect (predestined to go to heaven). The Calvinist believed you should not spend any idle time and you should sleep only as much as you need because you only have a limited time and you should be spending that time looking for signs that you are elect. The signs of being elect were the acquisition of wealth through social mobility (achieved status). Some additional signs of being elect were hard work, thrift, entrapanureal spirit, and competitiveness. These practices lead to a market economy (capitalism). In addition, their religion allowed them to lend money with interest. This is a key point because it is a prerequisite to make money from lending in the creation of capital markets.

2) Democracy – In Protestantism, prayer (mass) is said in the national (or regional) language of the practitioners. This is important because this allowed worshipers to have a direct relationship with god (you don’t need to go through the church hierarchy to interpret your relationship with god for you). This practice leads to literacy (read, understand, and interpret scripture). This rise of literacy leads to a participatory culture within the religious system which in turn creates dissent and activism (creates new branches of Protestantism). Finally, Protestants are informed and able to understand policy decisions made by leaders which create a stable democracy.

Catholicism:

1) Economic Development – Catholicism is limited in the development of a market economy (created lower levels of industrialization). God has ordained a fixed social structure (which cannot be changed). Therefore, you accept your position in the social structure. Like Protestants, the goal of Catholics is to get to heaven, but they achieve this goal in a different way. The way to achieve this goal is to accept your material conditions and lead a spiritually pure life. Howard Wiarada wrote about Catholics in Latin America which reaffirmed Weber’s claims. Catholicism places little or no emphasis on economic competition in the market place, entrapanurealship, and has no strong financial institutions (believed lending money with interest in any form was usury). These conditions increase the amount of time it takes to industrialize.

2) Democracy – Mass was read in Latin (worshipers were dependant on the church hierarchy to tell them their beliefs). This results in lower literacy rates. Obedience to the church was not negotiable. If you were not obedient you were expelled from the church. These restrictions facilitated a “subject culture.” People do not participate in politics and believe it is correct to be ruled. This creates authoritarian rule (in some form) which takes longer to achieve democracy.

Extending the theory:

1) Other religions – Islamic; capitalism did not take off because it was the faiths belief that it was correct to redistribute wealth to take care of the poor. There was no separation between religious and political. Eastern Orthodox Church; had a commonality with Catholicism in regards to economic development. Other less organized religions (like Buddhism); Buddhist, as part of their religion, have no attachment to material things (and body). They believe that loss is a part of life. This is not a key attribute in the creation of a market economy. Weber believed Buddhism would retard economic development.

Explain subsequent patterns of development and democratization:

1) Catholic – (Southern Europe and Latin America) clearly poorer, but moving towards democracy. Weber believes that this is due to an intervening event changing in Catholic countries. This intervening event was the Vatican II (second Vatican; 1962-1965). The second Vatican liberalized the church (reforms) which had an effect in changing the culture. The church felt threatened that it was not relevant to the younger generation’s lives. These reforms changed the operations of the church to effect political culture. The reforms included mass being read in the national language which created more participation (attracted more young generations), growing influence of secular social forces, universal public education (literacy), and technology access to media (exposed to competing influences). When these younger generations became young adults (1980’s) the trend led more toward democracy because of these Vatican II reforms.

2) Confucianism – Influence on economic development. Confucian religion is based on an ethical system. The male children had requirements to their fathers. This Asian influence led to the obedience to their parents and other authorities (school teachers, workforce management). This created a workforce that was willing to sacrifice income for reinvestment into industry which created a quick rise in economic development.

- Neo – Weberian Theories (Critiques and limitations):

The role of other factors towards economic development:

1) The social class conflict – Weber “missed the boat” when it came to W. Europe and political culture. Neo – Weberians claim that economic development was due to a social class conflict. Capitalism occurred in the U.K. with agriculture during the 17^th century. It started with the enclosure movements. The landlords wanted to take land away from peasants to make money through agriculture, but the peasants claimed that their families had occupied the land for a long time and fought with the landlords. Commons were created. Landlords had a commercial orientation and did very well with grain and wool trade under the Feudal system. However, through the ability of one class able to defeat another landlords enclosed (put fences around) the commons and pushed peasants off of the land. The peasants, through the use of star chambers, went to the king to complain. The Monarchy didn’t want the landlords to get too powerful so some sided with the peasants. This set off a civil war. This spawned the advent of private property rights which was a new concept. However, the monarchy was limited in its ability to protect private property rights. This was the beginnings of Feudalism versus Capitalism. Competition and specialization are the keys to a market economy. Private property rights were defined legally to encourage this (competition and specialization), an attribute that the Feudal system did not have. Landlords proved to be stronger than the Monarchy. This gave rise to commercial agriculture. As an effect, the people who could no longer compete in agriculture moved to cities. The migration to cities facilitated industrialization. Industry and agriculture had a functioning relationship.

2) Supply and demand – This argument points out that if a large portion of the labor market is decimated by misfortunes, such as the Plague, it allowed peasants to become more commercially orientated because of the need for laborers.

3) Colonialism and Imperialism – This had a profound impact on the economy and international relations. Prior to the 19^th century there were limited connections between countries. This changed with the slave trade. When the slave trade hit there was a “scramble for Africa” in which the Europeans carved up Africa into colonies. These colonies were created to serve the colonizer. This is an important reference point to economic development because colonialism increased economic development of the colonizer, but decreased the economic development of the colonized. Colonies were used to subsidize the colonizers home country. When the needs of the European countries were met the colonized country was left impoverished. This created an uphill struggle for economic development. The only infrastructure left was to create primary products (not worth much) rather than higher value added goods. Imperialism was concessions (receiving a cut of products bought and sold) to European countries so they won’t re-colonize. To focus on culture is to ignore colonialism and imperialism.

4) The timing and sequence of development – Emergence of capitalism in relation to the relevance of Catholicism. Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico had a clear take off of a market economy during a time when the conservative Catholic Church had a strong presence in all three countries. Argentina did this through agriculture (“La Pampa” – the plains) and used the profits to enhance industry. Brazil had very successful coffee plantation owners who invested in industry. In Mexico the Mexican leader (Diez – about 1910) revolutionized some parts of agriculture, mining, and other commercially oriented activities.

The role of other factors towards democratization:

1) Participant culture – Baby boomers who grew up around 1968 experienced post materialism, material needs had been satisfied, and experienced prosperity beyond previous generations. As a result they became interest in post materialist issues (Justice, Equality, Environment, etc.). These issues were not represented well in public policy which focused on material issues (Employment, G.I. Bill, etc.). This was a problem for post materialist because their government was not addressing their issues. This created protest (participant culture) until the government started paying attention to post materialist issues. When the protest declined the people moved back towards civic culture (high level of interpersonal trust and of political leaders). The shift that occurred from civic culture to a participant culture was the effects of the high level of economic development of Protestant descendents. This raises questions about the cultural patterns of long established democracies.

2) Islam and the Middle East – Historically hostile to the idea of political equality which is the cornerstone of a liberal democracy. Take a look at Iran who had two revolutions. In the 1905-6 revolution (Constitutional revolution) the Qajar Monarchy ended. The argument was that Shiite Islam is compatible with liberal democracy (with the separation of church and state). In the 1978-79 revolution the group that gained power argued the opposite on the basis that religion is 1. Is not monolithic and 2. Adapted to changing circumstances. This implies that religion can be compatible with democracy (not just Protestant). You cannot generalize about a particular religion because religion is not monolithic and can adapt to change. How do you explain that some religions that are supposed to hinder democratization but don’t.

3) Latin America – Weber argued that the first move toward democracy in Latin America occurred in the 1980’s because of the earlier Vatican II movements, but historically the first move towards democratization occurred in the early 1900’s (1900 – 1920) with Francisco Madero who wanted to bring political democracy to Mexico. Also, Chile, Argentina, and Brazil gave the right to vote to the middle class and working class men. This creates two problems because Catholicism was very strong at the time and a sequencing problem because of the dates of occurrence.

- Theories of the recent wave (3^rd Wave) towards democratization:

1) An Overview – In the early 1970’s there was a 3^rd wave of democratization where a number of countries were making the move towards democracy. This wave started in southern Europe with Greece, and then in Spain and Portugal. In Spain, with the death of Franco, military rule broke down. In Latin America authoritarian rulers allowed more democratic decisions in determining leaders. In Brazil, legislative elections (1985) and a constitution was drafted and there were presidential elections (1988). In Chile, direct elections without politics were adopted (1990). Oppression (killings and disappearances) in Brazil, Chile, and Argentina began the onset toward democracy while still under brutal authoritarian rule. Some of these countries coming out of brutal dictatorships endured psychological problems (how do you live among your former torturers). Venezuela and Costa Rica remained democracies throughout this period. Mexico had a civilian authoritarian regime not military rule. However, there still was some torture, but mild compared to some other countries. The civilian chain of command was through handed down through the dominate political party. The genius of the Mexican dictatorship was that it was “not strong on the stick, but strong with carrots.” Mexico was unique because it was not under military rule and was not as harsh as other countries. Cuba was, without question, an authoritarian regime. In Cuba, the Constitution states that the only political party that can exist, legally, is the Communist Party. In 1989, central Eastern Europe (Hungary, Chez Republic, E. Germany, Poland, Romania, etc.) had watershed (important year for political change). Popular mobilization and peaceful protest led to democratization. Romania had minor violence. No one expected the change or the way in which it occurred. In 1991, the Soviet Union had an odd transition. There was military action to reverse policy made under Gorbachev’s rule. Boris Yeltson (no longer with the party) urged people to resist and for the military to stop. The party was in control of the military (Leninism) but the military was in disarray and the coup dissolved. The Soviet Union fell under Gorbachev’s feet and became the Confederation of Independent States. The sequence of events and the way it occurred was unique. E. Asia also trended toward democracy with Taiwan and S. Korea in 1987 and then Indonesia in 1997-1998. Sub-Saharan Africa also is in the process of democratization.

Explanations of democratization in the 3^rd wave:

General theories can be applied to a number of cases in the 3^rd wave.

International factors – What is happening internationally to break down authoritarianism?

1) Defeat in foreign war - can be one factor. Usually in the aftermath there is a trend towards democratization. Examples would include Argentina, Panama, Iraq, and Afghanistan.

2) Effects of the Cold War – The cold war (1945-1991) facilitated authoritarianism and the end of the cold war leaned toward democratization. The Cold War was where nations challenged each other by building up weapons systems. During the cold war security for the United States outweighed democracy. The U.S Presidential administration was willing to overthrow democratic regimes if they were tied to Communism. When the cold war ended there was less worry about state to state connections and more interest in democracy. The U.S. led humanitarian interventions to get democratic leader back into power after having been overthrown by military regimes. Security no longer trumped democracy. The argument was that Russia tried to secure authoritarian regimes to destabilize democracies. With the cost of military competition the U.S. spent Russia into the ground. By this point there was mutually assured destruction for both sides which stopped the cold war.

3) Economic Crisis (related to the international economy) – Economic crisis usually results in a loss of legitimacy for incumbent of authoritarian regimes. This political crisis may lead to democratization.

4) Foreign aid – Foreign aid is often tied to the improvement of human rights. After economic crisis (debt crisis) countries become dependant on foreign aid because banks stopped lending due to increased risk. Governments in rich countries gain leverage over recipient countries to improve conditions. Some of these governments include improvements to human rights and even democratization as a condition of their foreign aid packages.

Domestic factors – influences (conditions) of democratization

1) Relationship between wealth and democratization – The higher level of wealth the higher chance of becoming a democracy and maintaining a stable democracy. A practical type of capitalism associated with a stable democracy is the redistribution of wealth. Countries with a strong social class division are not typically associated with democracy. The creation of public goods is related to social mobility. Wealthy nations are better equipped for redistribution which creates public goods (ex. Mass education) and reduces the class division which increases the opportunity for social mobility. The more wealth a nation has the more likelihood of mass public education which leads to higher literacy rates. A higher literacy rate facilitates democratization. Literacy creates a higher interest in politics. This, in turn, creates a mass market for media. Media compete on the basis of politics which reinforces accountability because it is harder for politicians to hide. Mass media is associated with democratization and increases the chance of stability.

2) Middle class – People from the middle class own businesses. They demand democracy because they are interested in the rule of law (can go to court if there is a theft, to enforce a contract, etc. They are also interested in private property rights. Over time as the middle class grows (business owners) they push for political democracy.

- Causes of Democratization:

1) Weber attributes general domestic explanations to culture.

2) Process oriented explanations – The search for general causes of democratization (Weber) are fruitless. The empirical evidence provides mixed results. The process orientated explanation argues that the theme toward democratization may be because of several factors, but this does not ensure progression to a full consolidated democracy. The conditions in a process orientated explanation toward democracy are as follows:

A) Background – National identity; the feeling of a common single political unit. The absence of national identity tends to lead toward civil war not democratization because of the pressure put on authoritarian regimes due to ethnic division. Ethnic pluralism (diversity) does not always lead toward democratization.

B) A legitimacy crisis for the authoritarian regime – A first step in democratization is the authoritarian regime enduring a sudden rapid decline in legitimacy (the background national identity is present before this happens). The defeat in a foreign war or an economic crisis is some of the reasons for this. The loss of legitimacy creates a split in the regime between hard-liners and soft-liners which creates an opening for the opposition. Both hard-liners and soft-liners want to maintain the regime, but they differ on the strategies to achieve that goal. Hard-liners want to crackdown (more repression). Soft-liners want to diffuse the tension and buy some time by giving the people more economic and social freedoms. Soft-liners argue that more repression will make it worse. On the other side is the opposition. The greater the cohesiveness of the opposition the greater chance they have of aligning with soft-liners which may lead to democratization. A transition phase may have a better chance of moving past the legitimacy crisis.

C) The decision phase – This is where transition occurs. There are three modes of transition:

1) Mass participation (mobilization) and little or no negotiation – The political opposition mobilizes people to protest peacefully and the pressures weaken the authoritarian regime. The problem with this mode is the “what do we do now” that occurs because there was no negotiation. A number of issues on resolved create a certain amount of tension after the transition.

2) Negotiated transition – Not everything is negotiated, but many major issues are addressed before transition between the opposition and the soft-liners. The authoritarian regime usually tries to negotiate their regime out of power with the best terms (amnesty, military autonomy, etc.). Negotiated transitions tend to be more stable.

3) Pacted transitions – These transitions are similar to negotiated transitions. The key difference is that the scope of the negotiations is greater. Pacts address important distributional issues.

D) Consolidation – A democracy in which all major political actors believe democracy is better than any other form of governance. Consolidation is usually measure by the two turnover test. This test states that after democratization if two elections are peaceful and accepted then it can be considered a consolidated democracy.

Essays:

Political culture is a philosophy that consists of beliefs on how governmental, political, and economic life should be carried out. It is argued that there is a direct correlation between overall life satisfaction and political culture. In the assigned readings political culture is defined as the pattern of individual attitudes and orientations toward politics among the members of a political system which gives meaning to political actions. It is argued that a political culture consisting of personal life satisfaction, political satisfaction, interpersonal trust and support for the existing social order is more likely a stable democracy. This is a civic culture view of what shapes political culture.
Some cultural explanations of economic development and political transition are, for example, the argument that certain religions (values) facilitate the conditions necessary to achieve economic development and political transition toward democracy. According to some cultural theories some countries became economically developed prior to other countries because they had a strong base of Calvinist Protestants. The argument is that the beliefs of this religion expedite the rise of economic development. Calvinist believed that their goal in life was to get into heaven. They also believed in predestination elect which meant that they were predestined to go to heaven or not, but they were born ignorant as to whether they were elect. Calvinist believed that you should sleep just as much as you need to because your time should be spent looking for signs that you are elect. Some signs of being elect were achieved status (social mobility), hard work, thrift, entrapanureal spirit, and competitiveness. These practices lead to a market economy. In addition, their religion allowed them to lend money with interest which is a key element in the creation of capital markets. Religion was also an argument as to why some countries democratized prior to other countries. Keeping with the theme of Calvinist Protestants, their religion was argued to foster the rise of democratization. It was believed because, in Protestantism, their mass was read in the national (regional) language of the practitioners. This meant that practitioners did not have to rely on the church hierarchy to tell them their relationship with god. This practice led to higher literacy rates (to read, understand, and interpret scripture). This rise in literacy leads to a participatory culture which in turn encourages dissent and activism. Protestant were informed and now had the ability to understand policy decisions made by their leaders which leads to a stable democracy.
Post-materialism is when all of the material needs of a populous have been met and they experience prosperity beyond previous generations. Some cultural explanations of post-materialism would be that in a post-materialist country there would be shift from a civic culture (personal life satisfaction, political satisfaction, interpersonal trust and support for the existing social order) to a participant culture (protest) if leaders focused on materialist policies (employment, G.I. Bill, etc.) rather than post-materialist policies (justice, environment, equality, etc.). Then when the political leaders took notices and began to serve the post-materialist through policy decisions the protest would subside and civic culture would, once again, begin to emerge.
Sorenson defined democracy as a form of government in which the people rule. He went further by including three conditions a government must meet in order to achieve a political democracy. The three conditions are (1) meaningful and extensive competition among individuals and organized groups for all effective positions of government power, at regular intervals and excluding the use of force (2) A highly inclusive level of political participation in the selection of leaders and policies, at least through regular and fair elections, such that no major social group is excluded (3) A level of civil and political liberties – freedom of expression, freedom of the press, freedom to form and join organizations - sufficient to ensure the integrity of political competition and participation. Some characteristics of a democratic regime are leadership selection through the use of free and fair elections, power exercised in a dispersed manner so that no one level of government calls all the shots, a rule of law in which leaders are subject, and rights and liberties protecting the people from those in authority.
Some of the differing explanations of recent transitions to democracy throughout the world are defeat in foreign war, the effects of the cold war, an economic crisis, and the receiving of foreign aid. Defeat in a foreign war or and economic crisis can facilitate the move towards democracy through the loss of legitimacy of an authoritarian government as a result of the defeat or crisis. The effect of the cold war could encourage democracy because during the cold war Russia was trying to secure authoritarian regimes and the United States was more interest in security than democracy and was willing to overthrow democratic governments if they had ties to communism. When the cold war ended the United States interest in democracy had returned and had fought to help democratic regimes to regain power. The receiving of foreign aid is also a possible explanation for the recent wave toward democracy. Countries that become dependant on foreign aid, usually as a result of a debit crisis, give rich governments leverage over the recipient countries. Through the use of this leverage, some countries include conditions to the acceptance of their foreign aid packages. Some conditions include improvements to human rights and even democratization.
The concept of “consolidation of democracy” is when all major political actors believe democracy is better than any form of governance. Consolidation is usually measure by the “two turn over” test which states that after democratization if two elections are peaceful and accepted then a consolidated democracy has formed. Some political and economic challenges facing new democracies are market reforms for countries that endured a debit crisis as a condition of an IMF (International Monetary Fund) bailout. The reforms take a while to achieve their intended effect and as a result usually cause initial massive job loss (50%). Also, because there is no barrier to trade as part of the conditions some domestic companies cannot compete with international companies and go out of business. Because of the fewer jobs available wages are depressed. Voters who are now unemployed start to question democracy which gives anti-systemic candidates a chance to emerge. Another economic challenge is the timing and sequence of reforms. Some governments delay democratization anticipating problems caused by economic reform. On the other hand, governments that form democracies prior, or during, economic reform endure problems that undermines the rise of democracy. Political challenges that new democracies are faced with occur when the mode of democratization is through mass mobilization with little or no negotiations prior to the transition. This occurs because the new democracy does not know what to do with their previous oppressors. Most of the public wants justice which creates a polarization which could destabilize the democracy. The problem is that there was no negotiation on amnesty trials prior to the transition. An additional political challenge is if amnesty is granted to the previous authoritarian regime. Most families want justice and might question democracy if they perceive no rule of law. This public disdain is hard on a new democracy.

Mexico:

1) What are some of the main similarities and differences in the platforms/ideologies of the National Action Party (PAN), the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), and the Democratic Revolutionary Party (PRD)?

PAN:

Economic Ideology – They are a pro-business party. In favor of export orientated industrialization (Free Trade – NAFTA) because many of their constituents (businesses) were already doing business with U.S. companies prior to NAFTA. They believe in “trickle down wealth” to eradicate poverty. They are generally open to foreign investment.

Social Issues – They are a socially conservative party. In the area of family planning, as a party they are generally opposed to rights for the HIV positive population and oppressive towards homosexuals. However, some of the party members are more liberal which creates a split. These issues are not part of this party’s agenda unless it is required during a campaign. In the area of public morality, they are against pornography and wish to promote a certain degree of censorship.

PRI:

Economic Ideology – This party’s economic ideology has shifted since the 1980’s to be more conservative (in favor of a free market economy). There is a split in this party between populist and technocrats. The populist side of the party wish to go back to their roots and promote “social justice” while the technocrats are more finance and economically inclined.

Social Issues – This party is considered progressive. They remain moderate to liberal on a number of issues. They believe in the advancement of women (even had a woman as party president). In relation to public health, they believe the party and the government has an obligation to provide for the people. They also believe in rights for the disabled and indigenous people (Indians).

PRD:

Economic Ideology – They are a liberal populist party. They initially criticized NAFTA, arguing it hurts small farmers. They want to re-negotiate NAFTA by implementing barriers to protect Mexican agriculture. They are for improving labor protections; vigorous enforcement of labor laws and labor rights to protects Mexican workers. In relation to poverty, they want to increase government spending to address the problem. They clearly want to do more to fight poverty than the other parties to include investment in infrastructure, provide jobs, social spending, and improving wages to help alleviate poverty.

Social Issues – This party has a liberal orientation. They encourage the expansion of women in the workforce and education (pay attention to drop out rates). They would like to advance indigenous rights by giving more local level autonomy while still remaining part of the Mexican state. This party has more perceived credibility than the other parties when it comes to indigenous rights. They also have a strong secular orientation – religious values in politics.

2) Discuss the structure of interest groups in Mexico. How has “corporatism” influenced the interest group system in Mexico? Has Mexico’s interest group system changed significantly since the 2000 election of Vicente Fox?

The structure of interest groups in Mexico derives from a heritage of “state corporatism.” This is where the government organizes certain groups to control them because they could threaten stability if left unattended. Corporatism has influenced the interest group system in Mexico in some of the following ways: These groups are organized by the political regime and you are required to join if you are a part of the group. The groups are financed by the government. Group leaders are selected by the party or government officials. The group leader’s function is to maintain order of the group and to carry out government mandates. Some groups are even incorporated into the party and/or bureaucracy. Since the election of Vicente Fox in 2000 the Mexican interest groups system has changed significantly. There are signs that state corporatism is on the wane. There has been a growing trend of more independent workers organizations with no political association.

3) Analyze some of the main features of political culture in Mexico. Is Mexico’s political culture changing?

Trust in government and interpersonal trust remains low in Mexico. However, trust for the family, church, and schools remain high. The low trust in government stems from a perceived high corruption rate which is due to decreased governmental wages. Low satisfaction in democracy is also a trend because Mexican’s look at democracy to change their lives (economically & law/order), but the government cannot provide this to the extent that the population expects. Mexico shows a high level of conventional political participation through voting. It is believed this has increased because of electoral reforms that make the process more competitive. There is also a high level of unconventional participation through protests. Due to the high levels of conventional and unconventional participation Mexico can be seen as having a participant culture. The role of women in the workforce has increased due to economic reasons, but it is generally preferable for the women to stay home if possible. Fertility has declined due to a higher prevalence of modern contraception. However, abortion is highly restricted. Physical and mentally disabled persons are generally more accepted. There has been effort to detect, educate, and mainstream disabled individuals. Due to a number of environmental problems in Mexico there has been growing concern for these issues. This is interesting because Mexico is interested in post-materialist causes before their material needs have been met. There is a strong preference for the separation of church and state. However, the church has become more vocal recently through lobbying and more protest. Mexico’s political culture is not shifting away from a participant culture, but there have been some interesting changes when it comes to the increasingly vocal church, the increasing role of women in society, the mainstreaming of disabled individuals, and post-materialist concerns prior to becoming post-materialist.

4) Discuss some of the legacies of the Mexican Revolution, with a focus on values of economic nationalism and social justice.

Social justice was considered a legitimate demand which entailed things like poverty, social exclusion, and economic opportunity that were believed to be the responsibility of the government. This concept was seen in the constitution of 1917 and was considered very progressive at the time. For example, article 27 (land reform) where ejido system land was returned to peasants to farm (not to own) and article 123 (labor rights) that involved the implementation of a 48 hour work week, unions, overtime, and employer organizations. Nationalism involved a group of generals that regained order in 1917. It was recognized that foreign trade created instability. There was a pre-text to nationalize because foreign companies were not abiding collective bargaining. The government wished to expand in the economy and deprive the U.S. and Britain from owning companies in Mexico. They also wished to nationalize the railroads, oil, and electric power generation. These views on economic nationalism and social justice were a result of the Mexican Revolution.

5) Discuss and analyze some of the public policy challenges facing the government of Mexico.

Some of the challenges facing the government of Mexico are related to poverty/job creation and corruption/rule of law. Poverty is very high in Mexico. Extreme poverty has worsened over the years. This is a challenge because the people look to democracy to improve their living conditions and if it doesn’t the people start to question the value of democracy. In addition, 60% of the population is between the ages of 15 and 64 with the majority being on the lower end of that spectrum. This demographic complicates job creation because there are too many young people looking for work. It was thought that foreign investment would help through NAFTA but it hasn’t. China is stealing all of the foreign investment because the legal wage in China is ¼ of Mexico’s and China has a much larger workforce (it has been said that China could cloth the whole world). There are also questions raised about national identity. Due to social polarization the wealthy try to distance themselves from other Mexicans. Corruption is a challenge because it raises the cost of doing business which can be a negative deciding factor in foreign investment. Also the rule of law creates a challenge because if businesses feel that contracts will not be enforced then foreign investment will be reluctant. These things affect how the citizens feel about democracy and the economy.

United Kingdom:

1) According to Rose, what are some of the main differences between “constitutional” powers in the U.S. and in the U.K.?

Unlike the United States, the U.K. does not have a written constitution that defines the role of government and the people. The U.K. has a “constitutional tradition” which is a body of laws that addresses issues that might be in a constitution. These laws are ordinary laws that can be passed by a simple majority in the House of Lords. One main difference is that the “constitutional tradition” is more efficient than a written constitution in terms of getting laws passed and implemented. This is possible because courts decide things without judicial review and without a written constitution there isn’t a blueprint for the functioning branches of government. The more controversial aspects of not having a written constitution are a concern of protection of civil liberties and rights. Police powers can be expanded at will. The referencing of common law gives government a more secure footing, but this does not have the same force as a written constitution. Since there is not a written constitution, first amendment rights are not present. The government is not restricted by privacy issues and utilizes prior restraint which is a trade of not having a written constitution.

2) Analyze trends in political culture in the United Kingdom, with a focus on trust/support for government, political participation, and social attitudes.

Trust in government is fairly low, but considerably higher than in Mexico. The current administration (T. Blair) endures very low trust levels from the people mostly due to the prime ministers decisions in Iraq. Although, trust in other people is a little higher which explains why the U.K. has a police force 1/3 of the size when compared to the U.S. Political participation has shifted from a civic culture, in the 1960’s, to a participant culture with frequent protest due to less trust in government. Protest had declined during the 1980’s, but still remains an important part of the political landscape. Protests are commonly about issues such as anti-war, environmental, nuclear disarmament, and animal rights. There is a high trend of conventional participation, but political scientists are still not ready to call it a civic culture; it is still a participant culture. Some social attitudes include issues like the role of women, disability, the environment, and law/order. During the 19^th century women were not welcome in business or politics. This has changed significantly as women represent a little more than have of the non-agricultural workforce, have higher voter turnout rates, and pursue higher education. The fertility rate has decreased and population growth is very low. Abortion was traditionally not legal, but became legal in 1967. There is a high prevalence of modern contraception. Divorce is easy to obtain which indicates broad social and political freedoms. In the U.K. there is extremely progressive legislation for the rights of the disabled with more support for mainstreaming while providing some services. There has been some debate over resources for providing these expensive services. There is increasing concern over the environment, in particular, global warming. All major parties are open to international regimes for environmental causes (reduce greenhouse gas). On the subject of law and order, capital punishment was abolished in 1965. However, the incarceration rate has increased. This raises the question of more punishment versus rehabilitation.

3) Discuss the interest group system in the United Kingdom. Do groups have much influence over the formulation of legislation?

Interest groups do not play a significant role in U.K. politics. They know government will be formed by the majority party and will pass the majority of legislation. In the U.K. parties are important not interest groups. Interest groups try to gain influence by working with the cabinet of the majority government. They offer research and implementation in exchange for support. However, most government legislation originates in the executive branch of government which severely limits an interest groups influence over legislation.

4) Analyze the legislative process in the U.K. What role, if any, does the Queen play in the process? Who is responsible for writing and introducing most bills? What process must bills go through in order to become law?

The legislative process in the U.K. is as follows: The vast majority of bills are government bills which are introduced on the floor in the House of Commons. These bills are usually passed with party-line votes. Then the bill is passed to the House of Lords. The House of Lords decides to pass the bill or not. If they decide to pass it then it is signed by the Queen and it becomes law. If they do not decide to pass the bill then it does not become law. However, the House of Lords cannot prevent legislation. If they decided not to pass a bill into law and the House of Commons reintroduces the same exact bill the next year it automatically is sent to the Queen to be signed and becomes law. The Queen plays a traditional role in the legislative process by signing the bills into law, but has no real power in the process. The executive branch is responsible for writing and introducing most bills.

5) Compare and contrast the Tory (Conservative), Labour and Liberal Democratic parties in the United Kingdom. Discuss some of the key differences between these parties with regard to economic and social issues.

Labour Party:

Economic - This party has a moderate economic position. They are interested in economic growth with an emphasis on social justice. They want growth in high skilled/high wage jobs and to create educational opportunity. They wish to eradicate poverty (especially child poverty). They promote home ownership for the middle class and give tax credits to lower middle income families (especially those with children). They wish to increase the minimum wage. They want to streamline government to increase efficiency. A recent shift in this party is its willingness to help business since it traditionally has strong ties to the labor movement.

Social issues – This party is more conservative with the major issue being crime, immigration, and national security. They wish to compete effectively with moderate voters by getting tough on crime which shows a shift in the party. Immigration is difficult to obtain and keep. They use a point system which is based on education and high skilled job experience. They have a tough approach on illegal immigration. This party has endured some criticism for sending illegals back to oppressive countries. All new citizens have to take socialization courses to learn what it means to be British. From a national security stand point the U.K. has aggressively sided with the U.S. in the war on terror. They have far reaching power to fight terrorism from within. They have committed troops to the Middle East. This worries citizens because they fear retaliation. Civil liberties groups are concerned about racial profiling. These decisions have been said to fracture support from moderate voters.

Conservative Party (Tory):

Economic – This is a pro-business party. They wish to have a free market through privatization, deregulation, and cut growth spending in certain areas (NHS & Education). They believe in moderating taxes. The party wants to provide “more value for your money” by increasing government efficiency. There is a split in the party over joining the EU monetary union. They are committed to be “good stewards” to programs implemented when other parties had power. They believe they have a duty to fulfill popular will even if radical change is necessary.

Social Issues – They vow compassionate conservatism. Abortion and other like topics do not have emphasis. They are strong on immigration. They do not want any because they believe it is “diluting British national identity.” They have a get tough approach on crime. They want to put more police on the streets. Their policy is like the Labour party, but they claim they will do a better job. They want to eradicate poverty while decreasing spending. There is a strong belief in having educational opportunities to help fight against poverty.

Liberal Democrat Party:

This party has an identity problem. They are virtually indistinguishable from the Labour party. The only differences are:

· They vow to do a better job on civil liberties.

· They are more “green” (concerned with the environment).

· Foreign affairs: Want to take troops out of Iraq – have a less trans-Atlantic relationship and get closer with the EU.

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