Students Again

Political Ethics and Political Corruption Homework

Iran Contra:

1. Summarize what the Iran/Contra Affair was all about.

The Iran/Contra Affair was about the U.S. selling arms to Iran in exchange for hostages (Iran’s Revolutionary Guar had seized the American Embassy in Teheran) and to try to gain influence with the “moderate” members of the revolutionary government in order to anticipate an American presence in post-Khomeini (Ayatollah Khomeini was the current leader) Iran. Part of the proceeds from the arms sales were then forwarded to the Contras to aid in their fight attempting to overthrow the Sandinista government in Nicaragua which was in violation of an amendment (Boland II) imposed by Congress forbidding aid to the Contras from any U.S. Intelligence Agency.

 

2. What was the precise role of the National Security Council?

The National Security Council aids the President when considering national security and foreign policy matters. The administration did not believe that the NSC was covered under the Borland II amendments because the NSC is not considered an intelligence agency. So, the NSC was used, through Oliver North (the NSC desk officer for Latin America and facilitated the logistics of the arms trade to Iran), to handle the arms trade to Iran and find outside monetary sources to support the Contras. North became the NSC liaison to the Contras. He was charged with “keeping them alive, body and soul” in spite of the cutting off in Congressional spending.

 

3. What was Isreal’s role in this affair?

Israel’s role was to supply the arms to Iran. It was in agreement, that Israel would sell arms to Iran, and then American would replenish Israel’s depleted arms stock.

 

4. What was “The Enterprise” and how did it work?

North, with the approval of Adm. Poindexter (National Security Advisor), employed a network of private firms, CIA agents, CIA proprietary firms, nonprofit anticommunist organizations, some State Department officials, and a few private individuals to aid the Nicaraguan rebels with logistics and fundraising efforts. The bulk of the money was handled by two individuals (Albert Hakim and Richard Secord) who controlled a network of firms; know to Iran/Contra Congressional investigators as “The Enterprise.” The Enterprise was a partnership between Albert Hakim and Richard Secord in close coordination with Lt. Col. Oliver North. The Enterprise served in a covert capacity as an informal contractor to the U.S. government and to the Contras. This gave the ability to divert funds, from the Iranian arms sales, to the Contras.

 

5. According to Congress, what was illegal about the actions of the executive branch?

The covert program of support for the contras evaded the Constitution's most significant check on executive power: The President can spend funds on a program only if he can convince Congress to appropriate the money.
When Congress enacted the Boland Amendment, cutting off funds for the war in Nicaragua, Administration officials raised funds for the contras from other sources -foreign governments, the Iran arms sales and private individuals; and the N.S.C. staff controlled the expenditures of these funds through power over the Enterprise. Conducting the covert program in Nicaragua with funding from the sale of U.S. Government property and contributions raised by Government officials was a flagrant violation of the appropriations clause of the Constitution.

6. Identify and state the significance of the following:

- The Arms Export Control Act

President Reagan had officially designated Iran as a terrorist nation, forbidding it, under the terms of the amended Arms Export Control Act, to receive arms from the United States. Moreover, the President had personally asked the Western European allies not to sell arm to Iran.

- The Boland Amendment (s)

An amendment, named after the congressman who wrote the legislation, barring the CIA or the Department of Defense from spending money directed “toward overthrowing the government of Nicaragua or provoking a military exchange between Nicaragua and Honduras.”

- The National Security Act

The National Security Act is a comprehensive law that provides for consultation between the legislature and the executive before Americans are sent abroad to fight, the Congress must go on record about it.

- The National Endowment for the Preservation of Liberty (NEPL)

These organizations worked as agencies to raise and divert funds for the covert activity in the Contras after the passing of the Boland Amendment. NEPL organization worked in conjunction with other phony organizations that North and others had devised in order to indirectly control funds that government bodies donated. "Channell's organization, NEPL, held fundraising dinners for rich people to attend, to learn more about the situation in the Contras and donate large sums of money to the 'cause'.

7. Who were/are the following individuals and what was the role of each in this affair?

- Oliver North

Oliver North, a military aide to the National Security Council, proposed a new plan for selling arms to Iran. This time, there were two new ideas. Instead of selling arms through Israel, the sale was to be direct. Second, the proceeds from the sale would go to the Contras.

- John Poindexter

John Poindexter was the National Security Adviser under Ronald Reagan.  He approved Oliver North’s actions and kept the situation quite from the President.

- William Casey

William Casey was the Director of the CIA. William Casey designated NSC staff member Oliver North as the new manager of day-to-day Contra operations. According to the Iran-Contra Affair record, CIA Director William Casey met frequently with North, even during the aid cut-off, to plan courses of action. William Casey repeatedly kept key facts from the intelligence committees during his tenure as CIA director.

- Robert McFarlane

Robert McFarlane was John Poindexter successor as the National Security Adviser under Ronald Reagan. McFarlane was an official behind the weapons transfers.

- Albert Hakim & Richard Secord

Albert Hakim, an Iranian-born American citizen, was partners with retired Air Force Maj. Gen. Richard V. Secord in the Enterprise.

- George Shultz & Caspar Weinberger

The arms-for-hostages proposal divided the administration. Longtime policy adversaries Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger and Secretary of State George Shultz opposed the deal, but Reagan, McFarlane and CIA director William Casey supported it. With the backing of the president, the plan progressed. By the time the sales were discovered, more than 1,500 missiles had been shipped to Iran. Three hostages had been released, only to be replaced with three more, in what Secretary of State George Shultz called "a hostage bazaar."

- Manucher Ghorbanofar

Manucher Ghorbanofar was the middleman in the Iran/Contra Affair. He was the U.S. contact for Iran.

- Ronald Reagan

Reagan claimed that he had not been informed of the Iran-contra link by national security advisor Vice Admiral John Poindexter or his aide, Lt. Col. Oliver North.

 

8. What is a presidential finding? How were such findings used in this case?

A presidential finding is an executive directive issued by the President. Findings are declarations that the president "finds" a secret activity is in national interest.

Dec. 5 -- Reagan secretly signs a presidential 'finding,' or authorization, describing the operation with Iran as an arms-for-hostages deal.

Jan. 17 -- Reagan signs a finding authorizing CIA participation in the sales and ordering the process kept secret from Congress.

9. Why is the Iran/Contra Affair an example of political corruption? Cite both deLeon and Lowi.

The Iran/Contra Affair is an example of political corruption because all involved parties “showed a remarkable disdain for the American political system of checks and balances, forming a virtual cabal that only answered for its actions to itself.” (deLeon 192-3)

Big corruption: (Big “C”)

1. efforts to shape the government for personal gain

2. to make base things appear good

3. to make convenience appear necessary

4. seeks personal gain thru political manipulation

5. not easy to recognize until after the fact

6. often justifiable because the action can be seen as necessary & then the corrupt activity can be approved because it was deemed necessary

(Lowi)

 

Intelligent Person’s Guide to Political Corruption:

Tocqueville

a. aristocratic government: head of government are rich & only want power

b. democratic government: statesmen are poor & still have to make their wealth

c. aristocratic government is better in that the rulers are not as corruptible since they already have the wealth they need

 

Corruption: breaking or decomposition of body; the destruction of the dissolution of government; individual moral depravity

 

Conventional corruption:

a. little “c”: most conspicuous if the taking of bribes; use of office or celebrity status to engage in sexual promiscuity

b. occurs more in the rich than the poor

c. 10-20% of GNP in private commerce can be attributed to little “c” activities

d. bribery is used to maintain friendships/relationships

1. useless in expanding a coalition, but effective in maintaining one

2. cannot sue each other or beach of contract

3. the use of a bribe is evidence of political weakness

4. ineffective when there are many participants involved, when the issue is public, & issues are important

 

Big corruption:

a. big “c”:

1. efforts to shape the government for personal gain

2. to make base things appear good

3. to make convenience appear necessary

4. seeks personal gain thru political manipulation

5. not easy to recognize until after the fact

6. often justifiable because the action can be seen as necessary & then the corrupt activity can be approved because it was deemed necessary

7. the “noble lie” and Machiavelli explains the necessary of having to go against the moral by committing an immoral act to keep the society intact

b. Koramatsu v. United States

1. following outbreak of WWII, Japanese in U.S. were put into camps for their “safety”

2. Korematsu sued because his right to due process was violated

3. it was “necessary” to and the “lie” was needed in order to maintain the greater humanity

c. ABSCAM

1. FBI posed as Arabs who are trying to gain political interests by offering bribes

2. all was captured on camera and shown to the public

3. what occurred was called entrapment

a. entrapment is when the government tries to set up people to commit crimes when under normal circumstances they wouldn’t have done so

4. during this case; the “noble lie” was necessary because it was used to expose the corrupt

 

Watergate:

1. Discuss the three types of illicit activities that made up the “Watergate Saga.”

- Building up a huge campaign chest (War Chest) to assure electoral victory.

- The use of highly improper tactics to discredit opposing candidates.

- Employment of illegal and unconstitutional means to undermine or destroy opponents of major policies or goal of the Nixon administration.

 

2. What was The Committee for the Preservation of the Democratic Party?

It was a dummy corporation that Bob Haldeman fraudulently set up in California. Its purpose was to solicit funds from Democratic supporters for the use in discrediting the Democratic Party’s candidate (Edmund G. “Pat” Brown).

 

3. Regarding the subject of campaign fund raising for the 1972 election:

a) who was Maurice Stans and what did he do?

Stans was the campaigns official finance chairperson. Stans along with Kalmback (Nixon’s private attorney) raised $60 million for Nixon’s 1972 campaign.

b) how were dummy corporations used and why?

Dummy corporations (originated by CREEP) were used to filter corporate and union campaign contributions. They did this to avoid detection because these types of contributions were illegal.

c) how did money laundering work?

It worked by a corporation sending money to a foreign agent. The corporation then would fraudulently record this disbursement of money on their ledgers as services rendered.  The agent would then transfer the money to a U.S. bank account in their name, then withdrawal the money and give it back to the company. Then an official of the company would deliver the money to the intended party.

d) how many firms broke the law and what did most of them have in common?

At least 18 firms broke the law. The common factor with some of these firms was that they had crucial matters before the government and need favorable governmental decisions.

 

4. Summarize:

a) The Associated Milk Producers case

The largest contributions came from the nation’s three largest dairy cooperatives. They were heavily dependent on government decision making, especially price supports. Clifford  Hardin (The Secretary of Agriculture) said that milk price supports, regardless of industry pressure, would stay at 79 percent of parity. So, dairy representatives met with Nixon at the White House. Jake Jacobson (attorney for Associated Milk Producers, Inc.) told the President that the dairymen were amassing enormous amounts of money for political activities and it would be in the administrations best interest to reconsider price supports. Two days later the price supports were raised to 85 percent of parity. Nixon received a total of $427,500 for his campaign. This decision cost the U.S. Treasury $125 million and resulted in a $700 million profit for the milk industry.

b) The ITT case

Nixon wanted to hold the Republican National Convention in SanDiego (He received the largest number of votes here in the ‘68 election and needed to lock up California for the ’72 election). The problem was that other cities had place higher bids for the convention to be held in their city. ITT pledged to underwrite the event in San Diego for up to $400,000. To avoid the accusations of corporate contributions, ITT first gave the money to San Diego County Tourist and Convention Bureau. During this time, ITT was in negotiations with Justice Department attorneys to settle three anti-trust suits seeking the divesture of several firms ITT acquired. Eight days later a settlement allowing ITT to retain its most important acquisitions had been agreed on. The terms of the agreement was virtually the same as a settlement proposed by ITT a year earlier but was rejected by the government.

 

5. Who were the main targets of C.R.P. “dirty tricks” (designed to discredit opposing candidates) and what kinds of things were done to them.

- George Wallace – Nixon used $400,000 to fund Wallace’s opposition’s campaign in the 1970 primaries. Nixon, through the IRS, created a scandal involving Wallace’s brother.  Both of these tactics failed. So, CREEP officials convinced Wallace to run as the American Independent’s Party candidate to undermine Nixon’s strength in California. To diffuse this challenge $10,000 was given to a California businessman and former Wallace supporter to convince disgruntled AIP registered voters to switch or drop their party registration. The plan was to reduce the percentage of registered AIP registered voters below the number that is required to get on the ballot.

-Edmund Muskie – Donald Segretti was recruited by Dwight Chapin (Nixon’s personal secretary) to harass Muskie in the New Hampshire and Florida primaries to drive him out of the race. In New Hampshire, fraudulent phone calls were made to voters believed to be from Muskie (“Harlem for Muskie Committee” – vote for me, more favorable treatment of blacks). In Florida, fraudulent poster were put up (“Help Muskie in Busing More Children” – by Mothers Backing Muskie Committee).

-George McGovern – Assisted by McCord and Hunt and a team headed by Barker and Liddy planned to break into McGoverns Washington headquarters to plant electronic eavesdropping equipment.

 

6. Describe what they did during the actual DNC break-ins.

They tapped phones and took pictures of documents.

 

7. What kind of actions were planned for White House enemies (policy opponents)?

- At Haldeman’s direction the FBI placed wiretaps on the phone lines of “unfriendly” newspaper columnist.

- The White House encouraged The Secret Service to maintain intelligence files on more than 47,000 persons considered potential threats. Most of these people were connected with the anti-war movement.

- The President encouraged the IRS “to attack our enemies.”

 

8. Who was Daniel Ellsburg and how did he figure in all of this?

Daniel Ellsburg was a former employee of the Defense Department. He was the man responsible for leaking “The Pentagon Papers” to The New York Times. Tried to discredit by breaking into Ellsburg’s psychiatrist office.

 

9. What was the Saturday Night Massacre? Describe the events leading up to it.

The Saturday Night Massacre occurred after the courts requested Nixon to hand over the tapes. Nixon offered a deal including transcripts of the tapes to the special prosecutor, Archibald Cox. In a press conference, Cox refused this deal. Nixon was furious and ordered Cox to be fired and the special prosecutor position to be abolished. Richardson (Attorney General) and Ruckleson (Deputy) resigned in protest to the firing of Cox. The Saturday Night Massacre showed that the President had something to hide which put doubt in the public about the government.

 

10. Summarize the proceedings of The House Judiciary Committee.

The House Judiciary Committee convened in early July 1974 to consider the articles of impeachment. The chairman (Peter Rodino) hammered his gavel to begin sessions. Only one other time in the last 200 years had a congressional committee been convened to consider impeachment of the President. From the outset the committee was divided over the question of    impeachment. The Judiciary Committee reviewed volumes of evidence (often contradictory) and days of testimony. Even though the Committee was unable to secure the Nixon tapes they brought their deliberations to a close less than a month after hearing the first witness. Five articles of impeachment were introduced; three of them passed and were sent to the House of Representatives for action. The June 23, 1972, tape was released shortly after the adjournment of the committee. The tape made defense against impeachment impossible because they showed the President knew a great deal about the Watergate break-in. On August 8, 1974 Nixon resigned.

 

1. How does the case relate to the basic question of:

-the constitutional separation of powers

-the protection of individual and

-the functioning of a free press?

 

2. How were the members of the Senate Watergate Committee selected?

They were to have no ambitions for Presidential office.

 

3. Who was Sam Dash?

Sam Dash was the Watergate Committees chief council. He desired to piece together the case (like you would in a courtroom) by building it from the ground up.

 

4. In what sense was McCord’s testimony the first break in the case?

McCord told the judge that some of the Watergate witnesses had lied.

- So what?

 

5. Who is/was Fred Thompson?

Fred Thompson was the Republican Minority council.

 

6. How did McGruder relate his testimony to matters of ethics?

McGruder believed what the President was doing was correct. He stated instances where other people acted unethically because of their beliefs. So, he felt just in also doing this because he believed in the actions.

 

7. Who was John Mitchell and what was his role in the case?

John Mitchell was Nixon’s old law partner.

- What position did he hold?

He was the Attorney General.

- What did he mean by the term “White House Horrors”?

The “White House Horrors” were events surrounding Wategate which he did not tell the President in order to protect him.

- What was the Liddy Plan that he approved?

The Liddy Plan was to plant electronic surveillance, prostituting, mugging, breaking & entering, and kidnapping.

-How did he see the difference between lying and not volunteering information?

It depended on the subject matter.

-What is meant by the term “stonewalling”?

Stonewalling is the practice of avoiding answering questions.

 

8. Who was John Dean and why was he ultimately so important to the case?

John Dean was White House Council to President Nixon. He was important to the case because he suspected he was going to be the scapegoat for the scandal so he went and told prosecutors everything which placed the President in the case. Sam Dash met Dean at his house to tell the story and Dean provided a 245 page statement of all the happenings and everyone’s involvement. Dean also introduced the theory that Presidential conversations might have been recorded.

 

9. Who was Alexander Butterfield and what information did he reveal?

Butterfield was a former Air Force Coronal that became the Administrator of the FAA (Federal Aeronautic Association) and later became Deputy Assistant to the President. He was known as the “man to control the gates.” The information he revealed was that he was one of four men that knew that President Nixon recorded his conversations and told investigators. This confirmed Deans suspicion (corroboration). This was the most remarkable evidence of the case.

 

10. Who was John Erlichman?

Erlichman was an assistant to Nixon (second only to Haldeman).

What was the group known as the “Plumbers”?

An investigative unit designed to fix information leaks within the White House in the interest of national security.

What were his views on the subject of constitutional limits on Presidential power?

He believed the President had inherent power beyond what the committee knows in relation to the Constitution. He does not know where the line is crossed when it comes to Presidential power.

 

11. Who was H.R. Haldeman? What was his role in Watergate?

H.R. “Bob” Haldeman was the White House Chief of Staff to President Nixon. Haldemen played various roles from directing Kalmbach to raise money for the 1972 campaign to having the FBI place taps on the phones of “unfriendly” newspaper columnist. He also orchestrated some of the cover-up. Nixon also gave him the tapes to review at home eventhough they were not supposed to leave the hands of the Secret Service.

 

12. Discuss the subject of the “dirty tricks” campaign.

Donald Segretti was recruited to discredit other candidates (with White House funds) through the use of infiltrating, sending out false mailings, and accusations of sexual indiscretion.

- Summarize the main ones.

In New Hampshire, fraudulent phone calls were made to voters believed to be from Muskie (“Harlem for Muskie Committee” – vote for me, more favorable treatment of blacks). In Florida, fraudulent poster were put up (“Help Muskie in Busing More Children” – by Mothers Backing Muskie Committee). He hired a woman to run naked outside of Muskie’s hotel screaming “Muskie, I Love You.”

 

1. What was “The Saturday Night Massacre”?

The Saturday Night Massacre occurred after the courts requested Nixon to hand over the tapes. Nixon offered a deal including transcripts of the tapes to the special prosecutor, Archibald Cox. In a press conference, Cox refused this deal. Nixon was furious and ordered Cox to be fired and the special prosecutor position to be abolished. Richardson (Attorney General) and Ruckleson (Deputy) resigned in protest to the firing of Cox. The Saturday Night Massacre showed that the President had something to hide which put doubt in the public about the government.

 

2. Why was bipartisanship on the House Judiciary Committee seen as being so important?

To ensure a fair hearing and lend credibility to the impeachment (they wanted people with no interest in political gain, lawyers, credible people, etc.).

 

3. How did the Committee members debate the definition of an “impeachable offense”?

Originally, impeachable offenses include high crimes and misdemeanors. In this case, the Committee defined impeachable offenses as “any abuse of conduct.”

 

4. What was the role of the “swing votes”?

They were voters that could swing either way with their vote, but their votes were needed to have a simple majority for impeachment.

 

5. What were the three articles of impeachment?

The three articles were obstruction of justice, abuse of power, and defiance of Congress.

- Which one do you think was the most significant?

 

6. What was the role of “specificity” in the Committee’s proceedings?

The articles of impeachment needed to contain specific details of the crimes (dates, etc.) otherwise it would deny Nixon his right to due process.